View source for Geochronology/Cenozoic

[[Image:Stevns klint.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a view of Stevns' Cliffs (Stevns klint), Denmark in July 2005. Credit: [[commons:User:Sfdan|Dan Simon]].]]
'''Cenozoic geochronology''' is the science of applying dates in the past to apparently Cenozoic rocks.

The cliffs at Stevns, in the image at the top of this page, have the highest iridium occurrence in the Alvarez analysis.
{{clear}}

==Notations==

Let
# '''ALMA''' represent the '''Asian Land Mammal Age''',
# '''b2k''' represent '''before AD 2000''',
# '''BP''' represent '''before present''', as the chart is for 2008, this may require an added -8 for b2k,
# '''ELMMZ''' represent the '''European Land Mammal Mega Zone''',
# '''FAD''' represent '''first appearance datum''',
# '''GICC05''' represent '''Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005''',
# '''GRIP''' represent '''Greenland Ice Core Project''',
# '''GSSP''' represent '''Global Stratotype Section and Point''',
# '''ICS''' represent the '''International Commission on Stratigraphy''',
# '''IUGS''' represent the '''International Union of Geological Sciences''',
# '''LAD''' represent '''last appearance datum''',
# '''Ma''' represent '''Megaannum''', or million years ago, or -10<sup>6</sup> b2k,
# '''NALMA''' represent the '''North American Land Mammal Age''',
# '''NGRIP''' represent '''North Greenland Ice Core Project''', and
# '''SALMA''' represent '''South American Land Mammal Age'''.

"The term b2 k [b2k] refers to the ice-core zero age of AD 2000; note that this is 50 years different from the zero yr for radiocarbon, which is AD 1950 [...]."<ref name=Walker/>

==Cenozoic time frames==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sortable table
! Name ([[English]])<ref>Names from local versions of the geologic timescale can often be found in the local language. The English name is usually found by replacing the suffix in the local language for -an or -ian. Examples for "local" suffices are -en ([[French]]), -ano ([[Spanish]]), -ium ([[German]]), -aidd ([[w:Welsh language|Welsh]]) or -aan (Flemish [[w:Dutch language|Dutch]]). The English name "Norian", for example, becomes Noriano in Spanish, Norium in German, Noraidd in Welsh or Norien in French.</ref>
! base/start ([[w:Megaannum|Ma]])<ref name="time">Time is given in Megaannum (million years [[w:Before Present|BP]], unless other units are given in the table. BP stands for "years before present". For ICS-units the absolute ages are taken from Gradstein ''et al.'' (2004).</ref>
! top/end ([[w:Megaannum|Ma]])<ref name="time" />
! status
! subdivision of
! usage
! named after
! author, year
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Aftonian interglacial|Aftonian]]
|0.6
|0.48
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Agenian|Agenian]]
|23
|20.4
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Europe
|[[w:Agen|Agen]] (France)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Aldingan|Aldingan]]
|36
|30
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Allerød|Allerød]]
|13,350 BP
|12,700 BP
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Weichselian|Weichselian]]
|Northern Europe
|[[w:Allerød Municipality|Allerød]] (Denmark)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Altonian|Altonian]]
|19.0
|15.9
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|[[w:Alton, New Zealand|Alton]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Amstelian|Amstelian]]
|2.588
|2.40
|super-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|river [[w:Amstel|Amstel]]
|Harmer, 1896
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Anglian|Anglian]]
|0.465
|0.418
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:East Anglia|East Anglia]]
|
|-
||[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Antian|Antian]]
|~2.12
|~2.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:River Ant|River Ant]] (England)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Antwerpian|Antwerpian]]
|19
|18.4
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Belgium (obsolete)
|[[w:Antwerp|Antwerp]]
|Gogels, 1879
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Aquatraversian|Aquatraversian]]
|2.588
|2.4
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Italy
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Aquitanian|Aquitanian]]
|23.03
|20.43
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|ICS
|[[w:Aquitaine|Aquitaine]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Arikareean|Arikareean]]
|30.6
|20.8
|super-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Arnold|Arnold]]
|43.0
|34.3
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleogene|Paleogene]]
|New Zealand
|[[w:Arnold River, New Zealand|Arnold River]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Arshantan|Arshantan]]
|52.1
|46.2
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Astaracian|Astaracian]]
|15
|11.1
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Europe
|The [[w:Astarac|Astarac]] (France)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Atlantic|Atlantic]]
|5,660 BP
|9,220 BP
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|Northern Europe
|the [[w:Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic Ocean]]
|[[w:Axel Blytt|Blytt]], 1876
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Avernian|Avernian]]
|29.2
|23.03
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Awamoan|Awamoan]]
|20.0
|17.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Badenian|Badenian]]
|16.3
|12.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Paratethys
|[[w:Baden bei Wien|Baden]] (Austria)
|Papp & Cicha, 1968
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Bairnsdalian|Bairnsdalian]]
|15.0
|10.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Balcombian]]
|15.5
|15.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Barstovian]]
|16.3
|13.6
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Bartonian|Bartonian]]
|37.2 ± 0.1
|40.4 ± 0.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|ICS
|[[w:Barton-on-Sea|Barton-on-Sea]] (South England)
|[[w:Karl Mayer-Eymar|Mayer-Eymar]], 1857
|-
|[[Batesfordian]]
|16.5
|15.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|Bavel Interglacial
|1.03
|0.96
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|[[w:Bavel (Netherlands)|Bavel]]
|
|-
|Bavelian
|1.03
|0.85
|super-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|[[w:Bavel (Netherlands)|Bavel]]
|
|-
|[[w:Pre-Pastonian Stage|Baventian]]
|~2.0
|~1.87
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:Easton Bavents|Easton Bavents]] (England)
|[[w:Richard Gilbert West|West]], 1961
|-
|[[w:Beestonian stage|Beestonian]]
|1.77
|~0.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:Beeston, Norfolk|Beeston, Norfolk]] (England)
|
|-
|Belvédère Interglacial
|0.338
|0.324
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|quarry "Belvédère" ([[w:Maastricht|Maastricht]])
|
|-
|Biber Glacial
|~2.5
|2.35
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|river [[w:Biber (Danube)|Biber]] (Germany)
|
|-
|Biber-Donau
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|
|
|-
|[[w:Blancan|Blancan]]
|4.9
|1.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Bolderian|Bolderian]]
|<23.03
|≥19
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Belgium
|[[w:Bolderberg|Bolderberg]]
|[[w:André Hubert Dumont|Dumont]], 1850
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Bølling|Bølling]]
|13,730 BP
|13,480 BP
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Weichselian|Weichselian]] 
|Northern Europe
|[[w:Bølling Sø|Bølling Sø]] (Denmark)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Boreal|Boreal]]
|10,640 BP
|9,220 BP
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|Northern Europe
|[[boreal zone]] in ecology
|[[Axel Blytt|Blytt]], 1876
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Bortonian|Bortonian]]
|43.0
|37.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|New Zealand
|[[Bortons]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Bramertonian|Bramertonian]]
|~2.12
|~2.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[Bramerton Pits]] (England)
|Funnell, Norton, [[w:Richard Gilbert West|West]] and Mayhew, 1979
|-
|[[Bridgerian]]
|50.3
|46.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|Brüggenian
|2.588
|2.4
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Northwest Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Brunssumian]]
|5.3
|3.6
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Northwest Europe
|[[Brunssum]] (The Netherlands)
|
|-
|[[Bulitian]]
|55.8
|53
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Bumbanian]] 
|55.7
|52.1
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]]
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Burdigalian|Burdigalian]]
|20.43
|15.97
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|ICS
|[[Latin]]: ''Burdigala'' = [[Bordeaux]] (France)
|[[w:Charles Depéret|Depéret]], 1892
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Calabrian|Calabrian]]
|1.806
|0.781
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Southern Europe
|[[Calabria]]
|
|-
|[[Casamajoran]]
|54
|48
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|Cassian
|1.1
|0.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Italy
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Castlecliffian|Castlecliffian]]
|1.63
|0.34
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|New Zealand
|[[w:Castlecliff|Castlecliff]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Cenozoic|Cenozoic]]
|65.5 ± 0.3
|present
|era
|[[Geochronology#Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic]]
|ICS
|''new life''
|[[w:John Phillips (geologist)|Phillips]], 1847
|-
|[[Cernaysian]]
|55.9
|55.0
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Chadronian]]
|38.0
|33.9
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Chapadmalalan]]
|4.0
|3.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Chasicoan]]
|10.0
|9.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Chattian|Chattian]]
|28.4 ± 0.1
|23.03
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|ICS
|[[w:Chatti|Chatti]] (ancient Germanic tribe)
|[[w:Theodor Fuchs|Fuchs]], 1894
|-
|[[Cheltenhamian]]
|5.0
|4.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Clarendonian]]
|13.6
|10.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Clarkforkian]]
|56.8
|55.4
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Clifdenian|Clifdenian]]
|15.9
|15.1
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|[[w:Clifden, New Zealand|Clifden]]
|
|-
|[[Colhuehuapian]]
|21.0
|17.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Colloncurian]]
|15.5
|12.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|Cromerian
|0.85
|0.465
|super-age/age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands, Great Britain
|[[w:Cromer|Cromer]] (England)
|
|-
|[[w:Dacian (stage)|Dacian]]
|5.332 ± 0.005
|3.600 ± 0.005
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Paratethys
|[[w:Dacia|Dacia]] (Roman province)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Danian|Danian]]
|65.5 ± 0.3
|61.7 ± 0.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|ICS
|[[w:Denmark|Denmark]]
|[[w:Pierre Jean Édouard Desor|Desor]], 1847
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Dannevirke|Dannevirke]]
|65.0
|43.0
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleogene|Paleogene]]
|New Zealand
|[[Dannevirke]]
|
|-
|[[Delmontian]]
|7.5
|2.9
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Deseadan]]
|29.0
|21.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Deurnian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Belgium (obsolete)
|[[w:Deurne, Belgium|Deurne]]
|de Heinzelin (1955)
|-
|Devensian
|0.116
|0.0115
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|Devenses, Celtic tribe by the [[w:River Dee (Wales)|Deva]] (England and Wales)
|
|-
|[[Divisaderan]]
|42
|36
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|Donau Glacial
|1.7
|1.35
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|river [[w:Danube|Danube]]
|
|-
|Donau-Günz
|
|>2.35
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|
|
|-
|Drenthian
|0.238
|0.17
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Northwest Europe
|[[w:Drenthe|Drenthe]]
|
|-
|[[Duchesnean]]
|42.0
|38.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Duntroonian|Duntroonian]]
|27.3
|25.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|New Zealand
|[[w:Duntroon, New Zealand|Duntroon]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Early_Pleistocene|Early Pleistocene]]
|1.6
|0.73
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|
|
|
|-
|Eburonian
|1.80
|1.45
|super-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|[[w:Eburones|Eburones]], Germanic tribe
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eemian_interglacial|Eemian]]
|0.130
|0.116
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Northern Europe
|river [[w:Eem|Eem]] (Netherlands)
|[[w:Pieter Harting (biologist)|Harting]], 1875
|-
|[[Egerian]]
|25.8
|20.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Paratethys
|[[w:Eger|Eger]] (Hungary)
|Báldi & Seneš, 1968
|-
|[[Eggenburgian]]
|20.8
|18.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Paratethys
|[[w:Eggenburg|Eggenburg]] (Austria)
|Steininger & Seneš, 1968
|-
|Elsterian
|0.465
|0.418
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Northern Europe
|river [[w:Weißen Elster|Weißen Elster]] (Germany)
|
|-
|Emilian
|1.5
|0.781
|sub-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Italy
|
|
|-
|[[w:Ensenadan|Ensenadan]]
|1.2
|0.8
|[[w:South American land mammal age|SALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|55.8 ± 0.2
|33.9 ± 0.1
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleogene|Paleogene]]
|ICS
|''earliest recent''
|[[w:Charles Lyell|Lyell]], 1847
|-
|[[Ergilian]]
|35.1
|33.8
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|Flaminian
|0.5
|0.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Italy
|
|
|-
|[[Flandrian]]
|0.01
|present
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|Western Europe (obsolete)
|[[w:Flanders|Flanders]]
|Rutot & Van den Broeck, 1885
|-
|[[Friasian]]
|16.3
|15.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Fujian (stage)|Fujian]]
|11.1
|9.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Japan
|
|
|-
|[[Gashatan]]
|56.9
|55.7
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[Geiseltalian]]
|48.5
|42.7
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Gelasian|Gelasian]]
|2.588
|1.806
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|ICS
|[[w:Gela|Gela]] (Italy)
|Rio ''et al.'', 1998
|-
|[[Geringian]]
|30.8
|26.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Gramian]]
|10.3
|8.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Northern Germany
|
|
|-
|[[Grauvian]]
|50.8
|48.5
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Greenlandian|Greenlandian]]
|11.7
|8.2
| 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|Greenland
|
|
|-
|Günz Glacial
|2.35
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|river [[w:Günz (rivier)|Günz]] (Germany)
|
|-
|Günz-Mindel
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|
|
|-
|[[Hallian]]
|~10.000
|0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Haranoyan]]
|18.2
|15.97
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Japan
|
|
|-
|[[Harrisonian]]
|24.8
|20.6
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|Hautawan
|3.1
|2.2
|sub-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Haweran|Haweran]]
|0.34
|present
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Headonian]]
|37.2
|33.8
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Hemingfordian]]
|20.6
|16.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Hemmoorian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Northern Germany
|
|
|-
|[[Hemphillian]]
|10.3
|4.9
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Heretaungan|Heretaungan]]
|49.5
|46.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|11,800 BP
|present
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Quaternary|Quaternary]]
|ICS
|[[w:Greek language|Greek]]: ''totally new''
|[[w:Paul Gervais|Gervais]], 1867
|-
|Holsteinian
|0.418
|0.386
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Northern Europe
|[[w:Holstein|Holstein]] (Germany)
|
|-
|[[Houldjinian]]
|37.2
|33.9
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]]
|
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[Houthalenian]]
|<21
|>16
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Belgium (obsolete)
|[[w:Houthalen|Houthalen]]
|Hirsch, 1952
|-
|[[w:Hoxnian Stage|Hoxnian]]
|0.418
|0.386
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:Hoxne|Hoxne]] ([[w:Suffolk|Suffolk]])
|[[w:Richard Gilbert West|West]] & [[w:J.J. Donner|Donner]], 1956
|-
|[[Hsandgolian]]
|33.8
|24.0
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[Huayquerian]]
|9.0
|6.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Hutchinsonian (age)|Hutchinsonian]]
|21
|20
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|Icenian
|2.4
|~2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands, England (obsolete)
|[[w:Iceni|Iceni]], ancient tribe (England)
|Pannekoek, 1956
|-
|Ilfordian
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|British Isles
|[[w:Ilford|Ilford]] (England)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Illinois_Episode_glaciation|Illinoian]]
|0.17
|0.125
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|
|-
|Ionian
|0.781
|0.126
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Southern Europe
|[[w:Ionian Sea|Ionian Sea]] (between Greece and Italy)
|
|-
|Ipswichian
|0.130
|0.116
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:Ipswich|Ipswich]] (England)
|[[w:Richard Gilbert West|West]], 1957
|-
|[[Irdinmanhan]]
|46.2
|40.4
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|Irvingtonian
|1.8
|
|[[w:North American Land Mammal Age|NALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|[[w:Irvington, Fremont, California|Irvington]]
|
|-
|[[Itaboraian]]
|59
|57
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Jacksonian|Jacksonian]]
|<math>36.75^{+2.65}_{-2.05}</math><ref name=Eguiluz>{{ cite journal
|author=Eguiluz y de Antuñano, Samuel, Solís Pichardo, Gabriela, Vega, Francisco J.
|title=Contribución al conocimiento paleontológico, geocronológico y paleoambiental de la Formación Jackson inferior (Eoceno Superior), en la Cuenca de Burgos, Tamaulipas, México
|journal=Paleontología Mexicana
|date=2020
|volume=9
|issue=2
|pages=121-134
|url=http://www.ojs-igl.unam.mx/index.php/Paleontologia/article/viewFile/642/563
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=18 October 2021 }}</ref>
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|southern US
|
|
|-
|[[Janjukian]]
|30.0
|27.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Johannian|Johannian]]
|48
|35
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Kaburan]]
|13.5
|11.1
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Japan
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Kaiatan|Kaiatan]]
|37.0
|36.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Kalimnan]]
|4.3
|3.4
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Kansan glaciation|Kansan]]
|0.48
|0.26
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Kapitean|Kapitean]]
|6.5
|5.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Karpatian]]
|17.0
|16.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Paratethys
|the [[Carpathian Mountains]]
|Cicha ''et al.'', 1967
|-
|[[Kasterlian]]
|~4.7
|~3.6
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Belgium (obsolete)
|[[Kasterlee]]
|[[w:André Hubert Dumont|Dumont]], 1882
|-
|[[Kattendijkian]]
|~5
|~3.6
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Belgium (obsolete)
|[[Kattendijke]]
|Glibert & de Heinzelin, 1957
|-
|Kechienjian
|1.9
|1.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Japan
|
|
|-
|[[Kiscellian]]
|
|25.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|Paratethys
|
|
|-
|Kryzhanovan
|1.9
|1.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Eastern Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Landenian]]
|<60
|>55
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|Western Europe (obsolete)
|[[w:Landen|Landen]] (Belgium)
|[[w:André Hubert Dumont|Dumont]], 1839
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Landon|Landon]]
|34.3
|21.7
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleogene|Paleogene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Neogene|Neogene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Langenfeldian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Northern Germany
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Langhian|Langhian]]
|15.97
|13.65
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|ICS
|[[Serravalle Langhe]] (Italy)
|[[w:Lorenzo Pareto|Pareto]], 1864
|-
|[[Latdorfian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|Germany
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Late_Pleistocene|Late Pleistocene]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[Laventan]]
|13.8
|12.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|Likhvinian
|0.3
|0.18
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Eastern Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Lillburnian|Lillburnian]]
|15.1
|12.7
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|Lishihhuangtuan
|1.2
|0.1
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|China
|
|
|-
|[[Longfordian]]
|27.5
|16.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|Ludhamian
|~2.52
|~2.25
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:Ludham|Ludham]] (England)
|
|-
|[[Ludian (stage)|Ludian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|western Europe
|
|[[w:Albert de Lapparent|de Lapparent]], 1893
|-
|[[Luisian]]
|15.5
|13.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[w:Lujanian|Lujanian]]
|0.8
|0.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Lutetian|Lutetian]]
|48.6 ± 0.2
|40.4 ± 0.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|ICS
|[[Latin]]: ''[[Lutetia]]''=[[Paris]] (France)
|[[w:Albert de Lapparent|de Lapparent]], 1883
|-
|Malanghuangtuan
|0.1
|0.01
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|China
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Mangaorapan|Mangaorapan]]
|53.0
|49.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Mangapanian|Mangapanian]]
|3.00
|2.40
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|Marahuan
|2.2
|1.8
|sub-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Mayoian]]
|12.0
|10.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Meghalayan|Meghalayan]]
|4.2
|0.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Quaternary|Quaternary]]
|India
|
|
|-
|Menapian
|
|1.03
|super-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|[[w:Menapii|Menapii]], Germanic tribe
|
|-
|Merksemian
|~2.5
|~2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Belgium (obsolete)
|[[w:Merksem|Merksem]]
|de Heinzelin, 1958
|-
|[[Geochronology#Mesozoic|Mesozoic]]
|251.0 ± 0.7
|65.5 ± 0.3
|era
|
|ICS
|''middle life''
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Messinian|Messinian]]
|7.246
|5.332
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|ICS
|[[Messina]] (Italy)
|[[w:Karl Mayer-Eymar|Mayer-Eymar]], 1867
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Middle_Miocene|Middle Miocene]]
|15.97
|11.608
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|ICS
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Middle_Pleistocene|Middle Pleistocene]]
|0.73
|0.15
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|ICS
|
|
|-
|Mindel
|0.85
|0.465
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|river [[w:Mindel|Mindel]] (Germany)
|
|-
|Mindel-Riss
|0.465
|0.238
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|23.03
|5.332
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Neogene|Neogene]]
|ICS
|[[w:Greek language|Greek]]: ''less recent''
|[[w:Charles Lyell|Lyell]], 1847
|-
|[[Mitchellian]]
|10.5
|5.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Mohnian]]
|13.5
|7.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Monroecreekian]]
|26.3
|24.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|North America
|[[Monroe Creek]]
|
|-
|[[Montehermosan]]
|6.8
|4.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Montian]]
|~65
|~61
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|Europe (obsolete)
|[[Mons]] (Belgium)
|Dewalque, 1868
|-
|Morozovan
|0.8
|0.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Eastern Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Mustersan]]
|48
|42
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Nanzian|Nanzian]]
|48
|35
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Nebraskan glacial|Nebraskan]]
|0.93
|0.6
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America (obsolete)
|
|
|-
|Needian
|0.42
|0.38
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands (obsolete)
|[[w:Neede|Neede]]
|
|-
|[[Neocomian]]
|145.5
|125.0/130.0
|epoch
|
|obsolete
|''Neocomium'', Latin name for [[Neuchâtel]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Neogene|Neogene]]
|23.0
|2.588
|period 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Cenozoic|Cenozoic]]
|ICS
|
|[[Moriz Hoernes|Hoernes]], 1856
|-
|Neporatan
|2.5
|1.7
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Eastern Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Neustrian]]
|55.0
|50.8
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Europe
|
|
|-
|Nomentanan
|0.24
|0.13
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Italy
|
|
|-
|[[Nongshanian]]
|62.9
|56.9
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Northgrippian|Northgrippian]]
|8.236
|4.2
| 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|Greenland
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Nukumaruan|Nukumaruan]]
|3.1
|1.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|Odessan
|1.2
|0.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Eastern Europe
|
|
|-
|Okehuan
|1.1
|0.37
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Older Dryas|Older Dryas]]
|13,480 BP
|13,350 BP
|chron 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Weichselian|Weichselian]]
|Europe
|''[[w:Dryas octopetala|Dryas octopetala]]'' (plant)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oldest Dryas|Oldest Dryas]]
|13,860
|13,780
|chron 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Weichselian|Weichselian]]
|Europe
|''[[Dryas octopetala]]'' (plant)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|33.9 ± 0.1
|23.03
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleogene|Paleogene]]
|ICS
|"''not so recent''"
|[[Heinrich Ernst Beyrich|Beyrich]], 1857
|-
|Oostermeer Interglacial
|0.243
|0.238
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|[[w:Oostermeer|Oostermeer]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Opoitian|Opoitian]]
|5.0
|3.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Orellan]]
|33.9
|33.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Orleanian|Orleanian]]
|20.4
|15
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Europe
|[[w:Orléans|Orléans]] (France)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Otaian|Otaian]]
|21.7
|19.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Ottnangian]]
|18.3
|17.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Paratethys
|[[Ottnang am Hausruck]] (Austria)
|Papp & Rögl, 1967
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|65.5 ± 0.3
|55.8 ± 0.2
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleogene|Paleogene]]
|ICS
|''oldest recent''
|[[w:Wilhelm Philipp Schimper|Schimper]], 1847
|-
|[[Paleophytic]]
|~450
|~270
|era
|
|paleobotany
|''old flora''
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleogene|Paleogene]]
|65.5 ± 0.3
|23.0
|period 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Cenozoic|Cenozoic]]
|ICS
|
|[[Moriz Hoernes|Hoernes]], 1856
|-
|[[Geochronology#Paleozoic|Paleozoic]]
|542.0 ± 1.0
|251.0 ± 0.7
|era
|[[Geochronology#Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic]]
|ICS
|''old life''
|
|-
|[[Pannonian]]
|11.608 ± 0.005
|7.246 ± 0.005
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Paratethys
|[[Pannonia]] (Roman province)
|[[w:Karl Roth von Telegd|Roth von Telegd]], 1879
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pareora|Pareora]]
|21.7
|15.9
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Neogene|Neogene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|Pastonian
|~1.87
|1.77
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:Paston, Norfolk|Paston, Norfolk]] (England)
|
|-
|[[Peligran]]
|62.5
|59
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Penutian]]
|53
|51
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology#Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic]]
|542.0 ± 1.0
|present
|eon
|
|ICS
|''visible life''
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Piacenzian|Piacenzian]]
|3.600
|2.588
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|ICS
|[[w:Piacenza|Piacenza]] (Italy)
|[[w:Karl Mayer-Eymar|Mayer-Eymar]], 1858
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|2.588
|0.0117
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Quaternary|Quaternary]]
|ICS
|''youngest recent''
|
|-
|Pleniglacial
|73,000 BP
|14,500 BP
|sub-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Northern Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|5.332
|2.588
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Neogene|Neogene]]
|ICS
|''newer recent''
|[[w:Charles Lyell|Lyell]], 1847
|-
|[[Poederlian]]
|~3.5
|~2.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Belgium (obsolete)
|[[Poederlee]]
|Vincent, 1889
|-
|[[Pontian (stage)|Pontian]]
|7.246 ± 0.005
|5.332 ± 0.005
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Paratethys
|''Pontus Euxinus'', [[Latin]] name for the [[w:Black Sea|Black Sea]]
|[[w:Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play|Le Play]], 1842
|-
|Pontinian
|0.1
|0.01
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Italy
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Porangan|Porangan]]
|46.2
|43.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Preboreal|Preboreal]]
|11,560 BP
|10,640 BP
|chron
|
|Northern Europe
|''before the Boreal''
|
|-
|[[Geochronology#Precambrian|Precambrian]]
|none
|542.0 ± 1.0
|none (before: eon)
|
|worldwide
|''before the Cambrian''
|
|-
|[[w:Pre-Illinoian|Pre-Illinoian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|''before the [[w:Illinoian (stage)|Illinoian]]''
|
|-
|Preludhamian
|~2.52
|~2.61
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|''before the Ludhamian''
|
|-
|Prepastonian
|~2.0
|~1.87
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|''before the Pastonian''
|
|-
|Pretiglian
|2.588
|2.40
|super-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|''before the Tiglian'' [[w:Tegelen|Tegelen]] (The Netherlands)
|[[w:Isaak Martinus van der Vlerk|Van der Vlerk]], 1948
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Priabonian|Priabonian]]
|37.2 ± 0.1
|33.9 ± 0.1
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|ICS
|[[Priabona]] (Italy)
|[[w:Ernest Munier-Chalmas|Munier-Chalmas]] & [[w:Albert de Lapparent|De Lapparent]], 1893
|-
|[[Geochronology#Proterozoic|Proterozoic]]
|2,500
|542.0 ± 1.0
|eon
|
|ICS
|
|
|-
|[[Puercan]]
|65.5
|63.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]-[[Geochronology/Mesozoic#Cretaceous|Cretaceous]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|Putikian
|0.37
|0.01
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Quaternary|Quaternary]]
|2.588
|present
|period 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Cenozoic|Cenozoic]]
|ICS
|''fourth part''
|[[w:Giovanni Arduino (geologist)|Arduino]], 1760
|-
|[[w:Rancholabrean|Rancholabrean]]
|
|
|[[w:North American Land Mammal Ages|NALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Refugian|Refugian]]
|35.0
|33.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Reinbekian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Northern Germany
|
|
|-
|[[Relizian]]
|16.5
|13.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|Repettian
|2.9
|2.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Reuverian]]
|3.5
|2.558
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Northwest Europe
|[[w:Reuver|Reuver]] (The Netherlands)
|
|-
|[[Riochican]]
|57
|54
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|Riss Glacial
|0.238
|0.128
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|river [[w:Riß|Riß]] (Germany)
|
|-
|Riss-Würm Interglacial
|0.128
|0.116
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|
|
|-
|[[Robiacian]]
|42.7
|37.2
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Europe
|
|
|-
|Romanian
|3.6
|1.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Paratethys
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Runangan|Runangan]]
|36.0
|34.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Rupelian|Rupelian]]
|33.9 ± 0.1
|28.4 ± 0.1
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|ICS
|river [[Rupel]] (Belgium)
|[[André Hubert Dumont|Dumont]], 1850
|-
|[[Ruscinian]]
|4.9
|3.5
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Europe
|''Ruscino'', [[Latin]] for the [[w:Roussillon|Roussillon]] (France)
|[[w:Miklós Kretzoi|Kretzoi]], 1962
|-
|Saalian
|0.238
|0.128
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Northern Europe
|river [[w:Saale|Saale]] (Germany)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Sangamon Episode interglacial|Sangamonian]]
|0.125
|0.075
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Santacrucian]]
|17.5
|16.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|Santomian
|1.81
|1.5
|sub-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Italy
|
|
|-
|[[Sarmatian (age)|Sarmatian]]
|12.7
|11.6
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Paratethys
|[[Sarmatians]] (ancient people)
|[[Eduard Suess|Suess]], 1866
|-
|[[Saucesian]]
|22.0
|16.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Scaldisian]]
|~4
|~2.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Belgium (obsolete)
|''Scaldus'', [[Latin name]] for the river [[Scheldt]]
|[[w:André Hubert Dumont|Dumont]], 1850
|-
|[[Geochronology/Mesozoic#Scythian|Scythian]]
|251 ± 0.2
|245 ± 1.5
|Epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Mesozoic#Early Triassic|Early Triassic]]
|Europe
|[[Scythia]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Selandian|Selandian]]
|61.7 ± 0.2
|58.7 ± 0.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|ICS
|[[w:Seeland, Denmark|Seeland]] (Denmark)
|[[w:Alfred Rosenkrantz|Rosenkrantz]], 1924
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Serravallian|Serravallian]]
|13.65
|11.608
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|ICS
|[[Serravalle Scrivia]] (Italy)
|[[w:Lorenzo Pareto|Pareto]], 1864
|-
|[[Shanghuan]]
|65.5
|62.9
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[Sharamurunian]]
|40.4
|37.2
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[w:Sicilian Stage|Sicilian]]
|0.781
|0.260
|sub-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Italy
|[[w:Sicily|Sicily]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Southland|Southland]]
|15.9
|10.9
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Neogene|Neogene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Stampian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|western Europe
|[[Étampes]] (France)
|[[w:Alcide d'Orbigny|d'Orbigny]], 1852
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Subatlantic|Subatlantic]]
|2400 BP
|0
|chron 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|Northern Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Subboreal|Subboreal]]
|5660 BP
|2400 BP
|chron 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Holocene|Holocene]]
|Northern Europe
|
|
|-
|Suchian
|3.0
|1.9
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Japan
|
|
|-
|[[Suevian]]
|33.8
|29.2
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Susterian]]
|8.5
|5.3
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Northwest Europe
|[[Susteren]] (The Netherlands)
|
|-
|[[Syltian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Northern Germany
|
|
|-
|[[Tabenbulakian]]
|24.0
|23.03
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Taranaki|Taranaki]]
|10.9
|5.28
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Neogene|Neogene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|Tarantian
|0.15
|0.0115
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Southern Europe
|[[w:Taranto|Tarento]] (Italy)
|
|-
|Taxandrian
|1.80
|0.418
|super-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands (obsolete)
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Tertiary|Tertiary]]
|65.5 ± 0.3
|2.588
|sub-era 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Cenozoic|Cenozoic]]<ref>The status of the Tertiary is not yet decided. The ICS will probably make a decision in 2009.</ref>
|worldwide
|''third part''
|[[Giovanni Arduino (geologist)|Arduino]], 1760
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Teurian|Teurian]]
|65.0
|55.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Thanetian|Thanetian]]
|58.7 ± 0.2
|55.8 ± 0.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|ICS
|[[Isle of Thanet]] (England)
|[[w:Eugène Renevier|Renevier]], 1874
|-
|Thurnian
|~2.25
|~2.12
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:River Thurne|River Thurne]] (England}
||[[w:Richard Gilbert West|West]], 1961
|-
|[[Tiffanian]]
|60.2
|56.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|Tiglian
|2.40
|1.80
|super-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|[[w:Tegelen|Tegelen]] (The Netherlands)
|
|-
|[[Tinguirirican]]
|36
|29
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|South America
|
|
|-
|[[Tiupampan]]
|64.5
|62.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|South America
|[[w:Tiupampa|Tiupampa]]
|Marshall & de Muizon, 1988
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Tongaporutuan|Tongaporutuan]]
|10.9
|6.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Tongrian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|western Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Torrejonian]]
|63.3
|60.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Tortonian|Tortonian]]
|11.608
|7.246
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|ICS
|[[Tortona]] (Italy)
|[[w:Karl Mayer-Eymar|Mayer-Eymar]], 1858
|-
|[[Totomian]]
|3.6
|3.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Japan
|
|
|-
|[[Tozawan]]
|15.97
|13.5
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Japan
|
|
|-
|Treenean
|0.15
|0.17
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Northwest Europe
|
|
|-
|Tubantian
|0.116
|0.0115
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands (obsolete)
|
|[[w:Isaak Martinus van der Vlerk|Van der Vlerk]] & [[w:F. Florschütz|Florschütz]], 1950
|-
|[[Turolian]]
|8.7
|4.9
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Europe
|''Turolium'', [[Latin]] for [[w:Teruel|Teruel]] (Spain)
|Crusafont, 1965
|-
|[[w:Tyrrhenian (stage)|Tyrrhenian]]
|0.26
|0.01143
|sub-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Italy
|[[w:Tyrrhenian Sea|Tyrrhenian Sea]]
|[[w:Arturo Issel|Issel]], 1914
|-
|[[Uintan]]
|46.2
|42.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Ulangochuian]]
|37.2
|35.1
|[[w:Asian Land Mammal Age|ALMA]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Asia
|
|
|-
|[[Ulatisian]]
|51
|48
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[w:Uquian|Uquian]]
|3.0
|1.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|South America
|[[w:Uquia|Uquia]] (Argentina)
|Castellanos, 1923
|-
|[[Vallesian]]
|11.1
|8.7
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Europe
|The [[w:Vallès|Vallès]] (Spain)
|Crusafont, 1950
|-
|Venturian
|2.2
|1.9
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Vierlandian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Northern Germany
|
|
|-
|[[Vicksburgian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|southern US
|
|
|-
|[[w:Villafranchian|Villafranchian]]
|3.5
|1.1
|[[w:European Land Mammal Mega Zone|ELMMZ]] 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Europe
|
|
|-
|Waalian
|1.45
|1.20
|super-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Netherlands
|river [[w:Waal (river)|Waal (river)|Waal]]
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Waiauan|Waiauan]]
|12.7
|10.9
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Waipawan|Waipawan]]
|55.5
|53.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Waipipian|Waipipian]]
|3.60
|3.00
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Waitakian|Waitakian]]
|25.2
|21.7
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Waitotaran]]
|3.8
|3.1
|sub-age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|[[Waltonian]]
|
|~2.52
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:Walton-on-the-Naze|Walton-on-the-Naze]]
|[[w:Frederic William Harmer|Harmer]], 
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Wanganui|Wanganui]]
|5.28
|present
|epoch 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Neogene|Neogene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Quaternary|Quaternary]]
|New Zealand
|[[w:Wanganui|Wanganui]]
|
|-
|[[Wangerripian]]
|
|
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|Warthian
|0.15
|0.13
|chronozone 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Northwest Europe
|
|
|-
|[[Wasatchian]]
|55.4
|50.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Weichselian|Weichselian]]
|0.116
|0.0115
|age
|
|Northern Europe
|Weichsel, German name for the river [[w:Vistula River|Vistula]] (Poland)
|
|-
|Werrikooian
|1.00
|1.806
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Whaingaroan|Whaingaroan]]
|34.3
|27.3
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|New Zealand
|
|
|-
|Wheelerian
|1.9
|0.01143
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Whitneyan]]
|33.3
|30.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[w:Wisconsin glaciation|Wisconsinan]]
|0.075
|0.01
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|
|
|-
|[[w:Wolstonian Stage|Wolstonian]]
|0.238
|0.128
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Great Britain
|[[w:Wolston|Wolston]] (England)
|
|-
|Wuchenghuangtuan
|2.4
|1.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|China
|
|
|-
|Würm Glacial
|0.116
|0.0115
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Alps
|river [[w:Wurm|Würm]] (Germany)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Yarmouthian interglacial|Yarmouthian]]
|0.26
|0.17
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|North America
|[[w:Aegean Sea|Aegean Sea]]
|
|-
|Yatalan
|3.4
|2.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Australia
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Younger Dryas|Younger Dryas]]
|12,700 BP
|11,560 BP
|chron 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Weichselian|Weichselian]]
|Northern Europe
|''[[w:Dryas octopetala|Dryas octopetala]]'' (plant)
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Ypresian|Ypresian]]
|55.8 ± 0.2
|48.6 ± 0.2
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Eocene|Eocene]]
|ICS
|''Ypres'', French name for<br>[[w:Ieper|Ieper]] ({{font|Ieper|font=Georgia}}) in Belgium
|[[w:André Hubert Dumont|Dumont]], 1849
|-
|[[Ynezian]]
|61.5
|55.8
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Paleocene|Paleocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|[[Yuian]]
|9.5
|3.6
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|Japan
|
|
|-
|Yuzanjian
|1.5
|0.75
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]
|Japan
|
|
|-
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Zanclean|Zanclean]]
|5.332
|3.60
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Pliocene|Pliocene]]
|ICS
|''Zancla'', old name for [[w:Messina|Messina]] (Italy)
|[[w:Giuseppe Seguenza|Sequenza]], 1868
|-
|[[Zemorrian]]
|33.5
|22.0
|age 
|[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Oligocene|Oligocene]]-[[Geochronology/Cenozoic#Miocene|Miocene]]
|California
|
|
|-
|}

==Cenozoic==

"Our assessment of published radiometric dates suggests the following best biochronologic age estimates for Cenozoic Epoch boundaries:"<ref name=Berggren/>
# Pliocene/Pleistocene: <2 Ma;
# Miocene/Pliocene: ~5 Ma;
# Oligocene/Miocene: ~23.5 Ma;
# Eocene/Oligocene: ~37 Ma;
# Paleocene/Eocene: ~56.5 Ma;
# Cretaceous/Tertiary: ~66 Ma.

"The radiometric data on which these age estimates are based, especially in the Paleogene, are biased toward those obtained from high-temperature minerals; age estimates based on radiometric dates from glauconites tend to be younger, particularly in the Paleogene (for example, Odin and others, 1982)."<ref name=Berggren>{{ cite journal
|author=William A. Berggren
|author2=Dennis V. Kent
|author3=John J. Flynn
|author4=John A. Van Couvering
|title=Cenozoic geochronology
|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin
|month=November
|year=1985
|volume=96
|issue=11
|pages=1407-18
|url=http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:143432/CONTENT/gsab.96.11.1407.full.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1985)96<1407:CG>2.0.CO;2
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-09-16 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Quaternary==
[[Image:Calculated Greenland temperatures.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Calculated Greenland temperatures are through the last 20,000 years. Credit: Willi Dansgaard.]]
[[Image:IceAgeEarth.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Artist's impression of Earth during the Last Glacial Maximum. Credit: [[c:user:Ittiz|Ittiz]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Quaternary is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).<ref name="ICS2013">{{cite web |last1=Cohen |first1=K.M. |last2=Finney |first2=S.C. |last3=Gibbard |first3=P.L. |last4=Fan |first4=J.-X. |title=International Chronostratigraphic Chart 2013 |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/icschart/chronostratchart2013-01.pdf |website=stratigraphy.org |publisher=ICS |accessdate=15 June 2014 |ref=ICS2013}}</ref> It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.588&nbsp;± 0.005&nbsp;million years ago to the present.<ref name=ICS2013 /> The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene (2.588&nbsp;million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago) and the Holocene (11.7 thousand years ago to today, although a third epoch, the Anthropocene, has been proposed but is not yet officially recognized by the ICS).<ref name=ICS2013 /> The informal term "Late Quaternary" refers to the past 0.5–1.0&nbsp;million years.<ref>[https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=Late%20Quaternary Earthquake Glossary - Late Quaternary] U.S. Geological Survey</ref>

The Quaternary Period is typically defined by the cyclic growth and decay of continental ice sheets related to the Milankovitch cycles and the associated climate and environmental changes that they caused.<ref name="Denton2010">{{cite journal |last1=Denton |first1=G.H. |last2=Anderson |first2=R.F. |last3=Toggweiler |first3=J.R. |last4=Edwards |first4=R.L. |last5=Schaefer |first5=J.M. |last6=Putnam |first6=A.E. |title=The Last Glacial Termination |journal=Science |date=2010 |volume=328 |issue=5986 |pages=1652–1656 |doi=10.1126/science.1184119 |pmid=20576882 |bibcode=2010Sci...328.1652D |ref=Denton2010|citeseerx=10.1.1.1018.5454 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lowe |first1=J.J. |last2=Walker |first2=M.J.C. |title=Reconstructing Quaternary Environments |date=1997 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0582101661}}</ref>

In 2009, it was decided to make the Quaternary the youngest period of the Cenozoic Era with its base at 2.588 Mya and including the Gelasian stage, which was formerly considered part of the Neogene Period and Pliocene Epoch.<ref name="ICS2009">[http://www.quaternary.stratigraphy.org.uk/correlation/GSAchron09.jpg See the 2009 version of the ICS geologic time scale]</ref>

The Anthropocene has been proposed as a third epoch as a mark of the anthropogenic impact on the global environment starting with the Industrial Revolution, or about 200 years ago.<ref name="Zalasiewicz2011">{{cite journal |last1=Zalasiewicz |first1=J. |last2=Williams |first2=M. |last3=Haywood |first3=A. |last4=Ellis |first4=M. |title=The Anthropocene: a new epoch of geological time? |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A |date=2011 |volume=369 |issue=1938 |pages=835–841 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2010.0339 |ref=Zalasiewicz2011 |pmid=21282149|bibcode=2011RSPTA.369..835Z
|url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/14867/1/Anthropocene_overview.pdf }}</ref> The Anthropocene is not officially designated by the ICS, but a working group has been working on a proposal for the creation of an epoch or sub-period.<ref name="Anthrogroup">{{cite web |title=Working Group on the 'Anthropocene'|url=http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/workinggroups/anthropocene/|website=Subcomission on Quaternary Stratigraphy|accessdate=16 June 2014|ref=Anthrogroup}}</ref>

The 2.6&nbsp;million years of the Quaternary represents the time during which recognizable humans existed.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Pallab
|date=March 4, 2015 |title='First human' discovered in Ethiopia |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-31718336 |work=BBC News |location=London |accessdate=2015-04-19}}</ref> Over this geologically short time period there has been relatively little change in the distribution of the continents due to plate tectonics.

The major geographical changes during this time period included the emergence of the Strait of Bosphorus and Skagerrak during glacial epochs, which respectively turned the Black Sea and Baltic Sea into fresh water lakes, followed by their flooding (and return to salt water) by rising sea level;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=William B.F. |last2=Pitman |first2=Walter C. |last3=Major |first3=Candace O. |last4=Shimkus |first4=Kazimieras |last5=Moskalenko |first5=Vladamir |last6=Jones |first6=Glenn A. |last7=Dimitrov |first7=Petko |last8=Gorür |first8=Naci |last9=Sakinç |first9=Mehmet |last10=Yüce |first10=Hüseyin |title=An abrupt drowning of the Black Sea shelf |journal=Marine Geology |date=April 1997 |volume=138 |issue=1–2 |pages=119–126 |doi=10.1016/s0025-3227(97)00007-8|bibcode=1997MGeol.138..119R }}</ref> the periodic filling of the English Channel, forming a land bridge between Britain and the European mainland; the periodic closing of the Bering Strait, forming Beringia, the land bridge between Asia and North America; and the periodic flash flooding of Scablands of the American Northwest by glacial water.<ref name="Balbas2017a">Balbas, A.M., Barth, A.M., Clark, P.U., Clark, J., Caffee, M., O'Connor, J., Baker, V.R., Konrad, K. and Bjornstad, B., 2017. [https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/45/7/583/207857/10be-dating-of-late-pleistocene-megafloods-and ''10Be dating of late Pleistocene megafloods and Cordilleran Ice Sheet retreat in the northwestern United States.''] ''Geology,'' 45(7), pp. 583-586.</ref>

The current extent of Hudson Bay, the Great Lakes and other major lakes of North America are a consequence of the Canadian Shield's readjustment since the last ice age; different shorelines have existed over the course of Quaternary time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dyke |first1=Arthur S. |title=An outline of North American deglaciation with emphasis on central and northern Canada |journal=Developments in Quaternary Sciences |date=2004 |volume=2 |pages=373–424 |doi=10.1016/S1571-0866(04)80209-4}}</ref>

The climate was one of periodic glaciations with continental glaciers moving as far from the poles as 40 degrees latitude. There was a major extinction of large mammals in Northern areas at the end of the Pleistocene Epoch. Many forms such as saber-toothed cats, mammoths, mastodons, glyptodonts, etc., became extinct worldwide. Others, including horses, Camelops and American cheetahs became extinct in North America.<ref>{{Cite web
|title =Stanford Camelops|last =Haynes
|url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140309104319/http://www.unr.edu/cla/anthro/people/faculty/haynes/download%20Haynes+StanfordCamelops.pdf|archive-date =2014-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Extinct American Cheetah Fact Sheet
|accessdate = 2015-12-10|url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023142/http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/_extinct/cheetah1_american/cheetah1_american.html|archive-date = 2016-03-04 }}</ref>

The "whole change elapsed just opposite the course of events that characterized the great glacial oscillations with sudden warming followed by slow cooling. Therefore, the two phenomena hardly have the same cause."<ref name=Dansgaard>{{ cite book
|author=Willi Dansgaard
|title=Frozen Annals Greenland Ice Cap Research
|publisher=Niels Bohr Institute
|location=Copenhagen, Denmark
|date=2005
|editor=The Department of Geophysics of The Niels Bohr Institute for Astronomy Physics and Geophysics at The University of Copenhagen Denmark
|pages=123
|url=http://www.iceandclimate.nbi.ku.dk/publications/FrozenAnnals.pdf/
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=87-990078-0-0
|accessdate=2014-10-05 }}</ref>

"In the Greenland ice cores, the Pleistocene–Holocene transition is chronologically constrained between two clearly defined tephra horizons: the Saksunarvatn tephra (1409.83 m depth) and the Vedde Ash (1506.14 m depth). These are dated at 10 347 yr b2 k (counting uncertainty 89 yr) and 12 171 yr (counting uncertainty 114 yr) b2 k, respectively."<ref name=Walker/>
{{clear}}

==Meghalayan==

The Meghalayan is the latest age or uppermost stage of the Quaternary.<ref name=Cohen>{{cite web |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2020-01.pdf |last=Cohen |first=K. M. |last2=Finney |first2=S. C. |last3=Gibbard |first3=P. L. |last4=Fan |first4=J-X. |title=International Chronostratigraphic Chart |publisher=International Commission on Stratigraphy |date=January 2020 |accessdate=8 January 2021}}</ref> It is also the upper, or latest, of three subdivisions of the Holocene epoch or series.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/meghalayan-age-what-the-world-was-like-when-it-began-1290138-2018-07-19 |last=Radha-Udayakumar |first=Ganesh |title=Scientists call our era the Meghalayan Age. Here's what the world was like when it began |work=India Today |publisher=Living Media India Limited |location=New Delhi |date=19 July 2018 |access-date=3 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/latest/887119/meghalayan-age-latest-phase-in-earths-history-named-after-indian-state-began-4200-years-ago|title='Meghalayan Age': Latest phase in Earth's history named after Indian state, began 4,200 years ago|author=Scroll Staff|website=Scroll.in}}</ref> It was officially ratified by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in June 2018 along with the earlier Greenlandian and Northgrippian ages/stages.<ref name=Cohen/> Its Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) is a Krem Mawmluh Cave formation in Meghalaya, a state in Northeast India.<ref name=CohenICS>{{cite web |author= International Commission on Stratigraphy |title= ICS chart containing the Quaternary and Cambrian GSSPs and new stages (v 2018/07) is now released!
|accessdate=15 July 2018
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219122950/http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-news-and-meetings/120-ics-chart-containing-the-quaternary-gssps-and-new-stages-v-2018-07-is-now-released
|archive-date=19 February 2020}}</ref> Mawmluh cave is one of the longest and deepest caves in India, and conditions here were suitable for preserving chemical signs of the transition in ages.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meghalayan-age-makes-the-state-a-part-of-geologic-history/story-bvbKrd33IXgMD1o6BaSjmM.html|title='Meghalayan Age' makes the state a part of geologic history|date=18 July 2018|work=Hindustan Times|accessdate=26 July 2018 }}</ref> The global auxiliary stratotype is an ice core from Mount Logan in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/news/formalsubdivisionoftheholoceneseriesgeogr18.pdf|title=Formal subdivision of the Holocene Series/Epoch}}</ref>

The Meghalayan begins 4,200 years Before Present (BP), i.e., before 1950 ca 2250 BCE or 7750 Holocene calendar (HE),<ref name=Amos>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-44868527 |title=Welcome to the Meghalayan Age – a new phase in history |work=BBC |author=Jonathan Amos |date=18 July 2018 |accessdate=19 July 2018}}</ref> leaving open room for the possible creation of the Anthropocene from 1950 forward.<ref>{{cite web |author= International Commission on Stratigraphy |title= Collapse of civilizations worldwide defines youngest unit of the Geologic Time Scale |url= http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-news-and-meetings/119-collapse-of-civilizations-worldwide-defines-youngest-unit-of-the-geologic-time-scale |website= News and Meetings |accessdate=15 July 2018}}</ref><ref name=irving>{{cite web 
|title=Time for the Meghalayan: A new geological age has officially been declared |author=Michael Irving |date=19 July 2018 |accessdate=19 July 2018
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715004024/https://stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-news-and-meetings/119-collapse-of-civilizations-worldwide-defines-youngest-unit-of-the-geologic-time-scale |archive-date=15 July 2018}}</ref> Helama & Oinonen (2019) dated the start of the Meghalayan to 2190-1990 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-06-15|title=Exact dating of the Meghalayan lower boundary based on high-latitude tree-ring isotope chronology|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379118310345|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews
|volume=214|pages=178–184|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.04.013|issn=0277-3791|hdl=10138/330959 }}</ref> The age began with a 4.2 kiloyear event (200-year drought that impacted human civilizations) in the Eastern Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and the Yangtze civilization (Yangtze River Valley).<ref name=Amos/> "The fact that the beginning of this age coincides with a cultural shift caused by a global climate event makes it unique," according to Stanley Finney, Secretary General of the International Union of Geological Sciences.<ref name=irving/>

==Northgrippian==

The Northgrippian is the middle one of three ages or stages of the Holocene Epoch or series.<ref name=Cohen2020>{{cite web |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2020-01.pdf |last=Cohen |first=K. M. |last2=Finney |first2=S. C. |last3=Gibbard |first3=P. L. |last4=Fan |first4=J-X. |title=International Chronostratigraphic Chart |publisher=International Commission on Stratigraphy |date=January 2020 |accessdate=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref name=ics2020>{{cite web |author=International Commission on Stratigraphy |title=ICS chart containing the Quaternary and Cambrian GSSPs and new stages (v 2018/07) is now released! |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-news-and-meetings/120-ics-chart-containing-the-quaternary-gssps-and-new-stages-v-2018-07-is-now-released |accessdate=19 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/meghalayan-age-what-the-world-was-like-when-it-began-1290138-2018-07-19 |last=Radha-Udayakumar |first=Ganesh |title=Scientists call our era the Meghalayan Age. Here's what the world was like when it began |work=India Today |publisher=Living Media India Limited |location=New Delhi |date=19 July 2018 |access-date=3 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://scroll.in/latest/887119/meghalayan-age-latest-phase-in-earths-history-named-after-indian-state-began-4200-years-ago |title='Meghalayan Age': Latest phase in Earth's history named after Indian state, began 4,200 years ago |author=Scroll Staff |website=Scroll.in}}</ref> It was officially ratified by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in June 2018 along with the earlier Greenlandian and later Meghalayan ages/stages. The age takes its name from the North Greenland Ice Core Project (NorthGRIP).<ref name=ics2020/> The age began 8,236 years before the year 2000, 6236 BCE or 3764 Holocene calendar (HE), near the 8.2 kiloyear event, and goes up to the start of the Meghalayan, which began 4,200 years before the year 1950 (2250 BCE or 7750 HE), near the 4.2 kiloyear event.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-44868527 |title=Welcome to the Meghalayan Age – a new phase in history |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |date=18 July 2018 |work=BBC News |accessdate=19 July 2018}}</ref>

==Holocene==
[[Image:Holocene GSSP base.png|thumb|center|400px|The base of the Holocene Series/Epoch is defined in the NGRIP ice-core record at the horizon which shows the clearest signal of climatic warming, an event that marks the end of the last cold episode (Younger Dryas Stadial/Greenland Stadial 1) of the Pleistocene. Credit: Mike Walker, Sigfus Johnsen, Sune Olander Rasmussen, Trevor Popp, Jørgen-Peder Steffensen, Phil Gibbard, Wim Hoek, John Lowe, John Andrews, Svante Björck, Les C. Cwynar, Konrad Hughen, Peter Kershaw, Bernd Kromer, Thomas Litt, David J. Lowe, Takeshi Nakagawa, Rewi Newnham and Jakob Schwander.]]
The Holocene starts at ~11,700 b2k and extends to the present.

"A timescale based on multi-parameter annual layer counting provides an age of 11 700 calendar yr b2k (before AD 2000) for the base of the Holocene, with a maximum counting error of 99 yr."<ref name=Walker>{{ cite journal
|author=Mike Walker
|author2=Sigfus Johnsen
|author3=Sune Olander Rasmussen
|author4=Trevor Popp
|author5=Jørgen-Peder Steffensen
|author6=Phil Gibbard
|author7=Wim Hoek
|author8=John Lowe
|author9=John Andrews
|author10=Svante Björck
|author11=Les C. Cwynar
|author12=Konrad Hughen
|author13=Peter Kershaw
|author14=Bernd Kromer
|author15=Thomas Litt
|author16=David J. Lowe
|author17=Takeshi Nakagawa
|author18=Rewi Newnham
|author19=Jakob Schwander
|title=Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records
|journal=Journal of Quaternary Science
|year=2009
|volume=24
|issue=1
|pages=3-17
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Holocene.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1002/jqs.1227
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-01-18 }}</ref>

"The base of the Holocene Series/Epoch is defined in the NGRIP ice-core record [above] at the horizon which shows the clearest signal of climatic warming, an event that marks the end of the last cold episode (Younger Dryas Stadial/Greenland Stadial 1) of the Pleistocene [...]."<ref name=Walker/>
{{clear}}

==Subatlantic period==

The "calibration of radiocarbon dates at approximately 2500-2450 BP [2500-2450 b2k] is problematic due to a "plateau" (known as the "Hallstatt-plateau") in the calibration curve [...] A decrease in solar activity caused an increase in production of <sup>14</sup>C, and thus a sharp rise in Δ <sup>14</sup>C, beginning at approximately 850 cal (calendar years) BC [...] Between approximately 760 and 420 cal BC (corresponding to 2500-2425 BP [2500-2425 b2k]), the concentration of <sup>14</sup>C returned to "normal" values."<ref name=Speranza>{{ cite journal
|author=A. Speranza
|author2=J. van der Plicht
|author3=B. van Geel
|title=Improving the time control of the Subboreal/Subatlantic transition in a Czech peat sequence by <sup>14</sup>C wiggle-matching
|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews
|month=November
|year=2000
|volume=19
|issue=16
|pages=1589-1604
|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/30494985_Improving_the_time_control_of_the_SubborealSubatlantic_transition_in_a_Czech_peat_sequence_by_14C_wiggle-matching/file/60b7d51c350cf2efa0.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00108-0
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-04 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Subboreal period==

The "period around 850-760 BC, [2850-2760 b2k, is] characterised by a decrease in solar activity and a sharp increase of Δ <sup>14</sup>C [...] the local vegetation succession, in relation to the changes in atmospheric radiocarbon content, shows additional evidence for solar forcing of climate change at the Subboreal - Subatlantic transition."<ref name=Speranza/>

The "Holocene climatic optimum in this interior part of Asia [Lake Baikal] corresponds to the Subboreal period 2.5–4.5 ka".<ref name=Karabanov>{{ cite journal
|author=E.B. Karabanov
|author2=A.A. Prokopenko
|author3=D.F. Williams
|author4=G.K. Khursevich
|title=A new record of Holocene climate change from the bottom sediments of Lake Baikal
|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
|month=March
|year=2000
|volume=156
|issue=3-4
|pages=211–24
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018299001418
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0031-0182(99)00141-8
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-04 }}</ref>

==Bronze Age==
{{main|Geochronology/Archaeology}}

==Atlantic==

The "Atlantic period [is from] 4.6–6 ka [6,000 to 4,600 b2k]."<ref name=Karabanov>{{ cite journal
|author=E.B. Karabanov
|author2=A.A. Prokopenko
|author3=D.F. Williams
|author4=G.K. Khursevich
|title=A new record of Holocene climate change from the bottom sediments of Lake Baikal
|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
|month=March
|year=2000
|volume=156
|issue=3-4
|pages=211–24
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018299001418
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0031-0182(99)00141-8
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-04 }}</ref>

Use of flax steadily spread, reaching as far as Switzerland and Germany by 5,000 years ago.<ref name=Barber>Barber E. (1991) "Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean". Princeton University Press, p.12</ref> In China and India, domesticated flax was cultivated at least 5,000 years ago.<ref name =Cullis>{{cite book|last =Cullis|first = Chris A.|date = 2007|title =Oilseeds |publisher = Springer|page =275|chapter = Flax|editor-first = Chittaranjan |editor-last =Kole|{{isbn|978-3-540-34387-5}} }}</ref>

"The last remains of the American ice sheet disappeared about 6000 years ago [6,000 b2k]".<ref name=Dansgaard/>

Beginning with the temperatures, as derivable from Greenland ice core data, it is possible to define an 'Early' or 'Pre-Atlantic' period at around 8040 BC, where the <sup>18</sup>O isotope line remains above 33 ppm in the combined curve after Rasmussen et al. (2006),<ref>S.O. Rasmussen, B.M. Vinther, H.B. Clausen, and K.K. Andersen. Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 (GICC05) Early Holocene section. IGBP PAGES/World Data Center for Paleoclimatology Data Contribution Series # 2006-119. NOAA/NCDC Paleoclimatology Program, Boulder CO, USA.</ref> which then would end at the well-known 6.2 ka BC (8.2 ka calBP)-cold-event.
{{clear}}

==Boreal transition==

Evidence exists of a domesticated oilseed flax with increased seed-size from Tell Ramad in Syria<ref name=Fu/> and flax fabric fragments from Çatalhöyük in Turkey<ref>{{Cite report|title=Çatalhöyük 2013 Archive Report |url= https://www.scribd.com/document/206552281/Archive-Report-2013 }}</ref> by circa 9,000 years ago.

"In recent years, the German oak chronology has been extended to 7938 BC [9938 b2k]. For earlier intervals, tree-ring chronologies must be based on pine, because oak re-emigrated to central Europe at the Preboreal/Boreal transition, at about 8000 BC [10,000 b2k]."<ref name=Kromer>{{ cite journal
|author=Bernd Kromer
|author2=Bernd Becker
|title=German Oak and Pine <sup>14</sup>C Calibration, 7200-9439 BC
|journal=Radiocarbon
|month=
|year=1993
|volume=35
|issue=1
|pages=125-135
|url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/download/18069/17799#page=130
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-10-13 }}</ref>

"The age range, 7145-7875 BC [9145-9875 b2k], is represented by the oak chronology, 'Main9'."<ref name=Kromer/>

"The age range, 7833-9439 BC [9833-11439 b2k], is covered by the 1784-yr pine chronology."<ref name=Kromer/>

==Pre-Boreal transition==

The last glaciation appears to have a gradual decline ending about 12,000 b2k. This may have been the end of the Pre-Boreal transition.

==Mesolithic==
{{main|Geochronology/Paleontology}}

==Late Pleistocene==

Late Pleistocene spans ca. 11,000-150,000 yr BP.<ref name=VanLandingham/>

The Late Pleistocene is an unofficial age in the international geologic timescale in chronostratigraphy, also known as Upper Pleistocene from a stratigraphic perspective. It is intended to be the fourth division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. It is currently estimated to span the time between c. 129,000 and c. 11,700 years ago. The Late Pleistocene equates to the proposed Tarantian Age of the geologic time scale, preceded by the officially ratified Chibanian (formerly known as Middle Pleistocene) and succeeded by the officially ratified Greenlandian.<ref name=Cohen2021/> The estimated beginning of the Tarantian is the start of the Eemian interglacial period (Marine Isotope Stage 5).<ref name="Eemian">{{Cite journal |title=Eemian interglacial reconstructed from a Greenland folded ice core |journal=Nature |volume=493 |issue=7433 |pages=489–494 |year=2013 |author=D. Dahl-Jensen & others |bibcode=2013Natur.493..489N |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/500331/1/2012-07-09846-NEEM_revised.pdf |doi=10.1038/nature11789 |pmid=23344358 }}</ref> It is held to end with the termination of the Younger Dryas, some 11,700 years ago when the Holocene Epoch began.<ref name="FRS">Mike Walker; et al. (December 2018). "Formal ratification of the subdivision of the Holocene Series/Epoch (Quaternary System/Period)" (PDF). Episodes. Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS). 41 (4): 213–223. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2018/018016. Retrieved 11 November 2019.</ref>

The term Upper Pleistocene is currently in use as a provisional or "quasi-formal" designation by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Although the three oldest ages of the Pleistocene (the Gelasian, the Calabrian and the Chibanian) have been officially defined, the Late Pleistocene has yet to be formally defined, along with consideration of a proposed Anthropocene sub-division of the Holocene.<ref name="Gibbard">{{cite journal |author1= P. L. Gibbard  |title=The Quaternary System/Period and its major subdivisions |journal=Russian Geology and Geophysics |date=2015 |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=686–688 |doi=10.1016/j.rgg.2015.03.015}}</ref>

The main feature of the Late Pleistocene was glaciation, for example the Würm glaciation in the Alps of Europe, to 14 ka, and the subsequent Younger Dryas. Many megafauna became Quaternary extinction event during this age, a trend that continued into the Holocene. In palaeoanthropology, the Late Pleistocene contains the Upper Palaeolithic stage of human development, including many of the early human migrations and the extinction of the last remaining archaic human species.

The proposed beginning of the Late Pleistocene is the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period (PGP) 126 ka when the Riß glaciation (Alpine) was being succeeded by the Eemian (Riß-Würm) interglacial period.<ref name="EIG">{{cite journal |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/500331/1/2012-07-09846-NEEM_revised.pdf |title=Eemian interglacial reconstructed from a Greenland folded ice core |journal=Nature |volume=493 |issue=7433 |pages=489–94 |year=2013 |doi=10.1038/nature11789 |pmid=23344358 |author=D. Dahl-Jensen & others |bibcode=2013Natur.493..489N }}</ref> The Riß-Würm ended 115 ka with the onset of the Last Glacial Period (LGP) which is known in Europe as the Würm glaciation (Alpine) or Devensian glaciation (Great Britain) or Weichselian glaciation (northern Europe); these are broadly equated with the Wisconsin glaciation (North America), though technically that began much later.<ref name="EIG"/>

The Last Glacial Maximum was reached during the later millennia of the Würm/Weichselian, estimated between 26 ka and 19 ka when deglaciation began in the Northern Hemisphere. The Würm/Weichselian endured until 16 ka with Northern Europe, including most of Great Britain, covered by an ice sheet. The glaciers reached the Great Lakes in North America.<ref name="FRS"/> Sea levels fell and two land bridges were temporarily in existence that had significance for human migration: Doggerland, which connected Great Britain to mainland Europe; and the Bering land bridge which joined Alaska to Siberia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12244964 |title=The moment Great Britain became an island |last=Lane |first=Megan |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |date=15 February 2011 | access-date=5 November 2019}}</ref><ref name="BLB">{{cite web
|title=Bering Land Bridge |first=Barbara |last=Winter |publisher=SFU Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology |accessdate=2 March 2019 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428231158/http://www.sfu.museum/journey/an-en/postsecondaire-postsecondary/pont_beringie-beringia_bridge |archive-date=28 April 2015 }}</ref>

The Last Ice Age was followed by the Late Glacial Interstadial, a period of global warming to 12.9 ka, and the Younger Dryas, a return to glacial conditions until 11.7 ka. Palaeoclimatology holds that there was a sequence of stadials and interstadials from about 16 ka until the end of the Pleistocene. These were the Oldest Dryas (stadial), the Bølling oscillation (interstadial), the Older Dryas (stadial), the Allerød oscillation (interstadial) and finally the Younger Dryas.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://people.oregonstate.edu/~carlsand/carlson_encyclopedia_Quat_2013_YD.pdf |encyclopaedia=Encyclopaedia of Quaternary Science |year=2013 |volume=3 |pages=126–134 |first=A. E. |last=Carlson |publisher=Elsevier |title=The Younger Dryas Climate Event}}</ref>

The end of the Younger Dryas marks the boundary between the Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs. Man in all parts of the world was still culturally and technologically in the Palaeolithic (Old Stone) Age. Tools and weapons were basic stone or wooden implements. Nomadic tribes followed moving herds. Non-nomadics acquired their food by gathering and hunting.<ref name=Bronoski>{{cite book |last=Bronowski |first=Jacob
|title=The Ascent of Man |year=1973 |publisher=BBC |location=London |isbn=978-1-849-90115-4 }}</ref>

In Egypt, the Late (or Upper) Palaeolithic began sometime after 30,000 BC. People in North Africa had relocated to the Nile Valley as the Sahara was transformed from grassland to desert.<ref>{{cite web
| title=Ancient Egyptian Culture: Palaeolithic Egypt |work=Emuseum |publisher=Minnesota State University |date=2002 |accessdate=18 November 2019 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601171500/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/history/paleolithic%20egypt.htm |archive-date=1 June 2010}}</ref> The Nazlet Khater skeleton was found in 1980 and has been radiocarbon dated to between 30,360 and 35,100 years ago.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Willoughby |first1=Pamela R. |title=The Evolution of Modern Humans in Africa: A Comprehensive Guide |date=2007 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0759101197 |pages=181–182}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=L. |last1=Bouchneba |first2=I. |last2=Crevecoeur |title=The inner ear of Nazlet Khater 2 (Upper Palaeolithic, Egypt) |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=56 |issue=3 |year=2009 |pages=257–262 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.12.003 |pmid=19144388}}</ref>

==Flandrian interglacial==

The first part of the Flandrian, known as the Younger Atlantic, was a period of fairly rapid sea level rise,<ref>Tooley, M. J. (1979) ''Sea-level Changes: North-West England During the Flandrian Stage'' Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, {{ISBN|978-0-19-823228-5}}</ref> known as the '''Flandrian transgression''' and associated with the melting of the Fenno-Scandian, Scottish, Laurentide and Cordilleran Cordilleran glaciers.

Fjords were formed during the Flandrian transgression when U-shaped glaciated valleys were inundated with water.<ref>Stoker, Martyn S. (2010) "Late glacial ice-cap dynamics in NW Scotland: evidence from the fjords of the Summer Isles region" ''Quaternary Science Reviews'' 28(27/28):&nbsp;pp.&nbsp;3161&ndash;3184, doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.09.012</ref>

The Flandrian began as the relatively short-lived Younger Dryas climate downturn came to an end. This formed the last gasp of the Devensian glaciation.

==Younger Dryas==

The "Alleröd/Younger Dryas transition [occurred] some 11,000 years ago [11,000 b2k]."<ref name=Mangerud>{{ cite book
|author=Jan Mangerud
|title=The Alleröd/Younger Dryas Boundary, In: ''Abrupt Climatic Change''
|publisher=D. Reidel Publishing Company
|location=
|date=1987
|editor=W. H. Berger and L. D. Labeyrie
|pages=163-71
|url=http://folk.uib.no/ngljm/PDF_files/Mangerud%201987,YD%20boundary.PDF
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2014-11-03 }}</ref>

"The Younger Dryas interval during the Last Glacial Termination was an abrupt return to glacial-like conditions punctuating the transition to a warmer, interglacial climate."<ref name=Muscheler>{{ cite journal
|author=R. Muscheler
|author2=B. Kromer
|author3=S. Björck
|author4=A. Svensson
|author5=M. Friedrich
|author6=K. F. Kaiser
|author7=J. Southon
|title=Tree rings and ice cores reveal <sup>14</sup>C calibration uncertainties during the Younger Dryas
|journal=Nature Geoscience
|year=2008
|volume=1
|issue=4
|pages=263-7
|url=http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v1/n4/full/ngeo128.html
|arxiv=
|bibcode=2008NatGe...1..263M
|doi=10.1038/ngeo128
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-10-09 }}</ref>

"From former cirque glaciers in western Norway, it is calculated that the summer (1.May to 30.September) temperature dropped 5-6°C during less than two centuries, probably within decades, at the Alleröd/Younger Dryas transition, some 11,000 years ago."<ref name=Mangerud>{{ cite book
|author=Jan Mangerud
|title=The Alleröd/Younger Dryas Boundary, In: ''Abrupt Climatic Change''
|publisher=D. Reidel Publishing Company
|location=
|date=1987
|editor=W. H. Berger and L. D. Labeyrie
|pages=163-71
|url=http://folk.uib.no/ngljm/PDF_files/Mangerud%201987,YD%20boundary.PDF
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2014-11-03 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Greenlandian==

The 'Greenlandian is the earliest age or lowest stage of the Holocene epoch or series, part of the Quaternary.<ref name=Cohen2021>{{cite web |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2020-01.pdf |last=Cohen |first=K. M. |last2=Finney |first2=S. C. |last3=Gibbard |first3=P. L. |last4=Fan |first4=J-X. |title=International Chronostratigraphic Chart |publisher=International Commission on Stratigraphy |date=January 2020 |accessdate=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref name="chart">{{cite web |last1=International Commission on Stratigraphy |title=ICS chart containing the Quaternary and Cambrian GSSPs and new stages (v 2018/07) is now released! |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-news-and-meetings/120-ics-chart-containing-the-quaternary-gssps-and-new-stages-v-2018-07-is-now-released |accessdate=15 July 2018}}</ref> Beginning in 9700 BCE (300 HE, 11700 b2k) and ending 6236 BCE (3764 HE, 8236 b2k),<ref name="BBCNews">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-44868527 |title=Welcome to the Meghalayan Age – a new phase in history |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |date=18 July 2018 |work=BBC News |access-date=19 July 2018}}</ref> it is the earliest of three sub-divisions of the Holocene, and was officially ratified by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in June 2018 with the later Northgrippian and Meghalayan ages/stages.<ref name="chart"/> The lower boundary of the Greenlandian Age is the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) sample from the North Greenland Ice Core Project in central Greenland (75.1000°N 42.3200°W).<ref name="GSSP-Table">{{cite web |last1=International Commission on Stratigraphy. |title=GSSP Table – All Periods |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/index.html |website=GSSPs |accessdate=15 July 2018}}</ref> The Greenlandian GSSP has been correlated with the end of Younger Dryas (from near-glacial to interglacial) and a "shift in deuterium excess values".<ref name="GSSP-Table"/>

==Allerød Oscillation==

The "Allerød Chronozone, 11,800 to 11,000 years ago".<ref name=Mangerud/>

"During the Allerød Chronozone, 11,800 to 11,000 years ago, western Europe approached the present day environmental and climatic situation, after having suffered the last glacial maximum some 20,000 to 18,000 years ago. However, the climatic deterioration 11,000 years ago led to nearly fully glacial conditions on this continent for some few hundreds of years during the Younger Dryas. This change is completely out of phase with the Milankovitch (orbital) forcing as this is understood today, and therefore its cause is of major interest."<ref name=Mangerud/>

"Excess <sup>14</sup>C in Cariaco Basin sediments indicates a slowing in thermohaline circulation and heat transport to the North Atlantic at that time, and both marine and terrestrial paleoclimate proxy records around the North Atlantic show a short-lived (<400 yr) cold event (Intra-Allerød cold period) that began ca. 13,350 yr B.P."<ref name=Donnelly>{{ cite journal
|author=Jeffrey P. Donnelly
|author2=Neal W. Driscoll
|author3=Elazar Uchupi
|author4=Lloyd D. Keigwin
|author5=William C. Schwab
|author6=E. Robert Thieler
|author7=Stephen A. Swift
|title=Catastrophic meltwater discharge down the Hudson Valley: A potential trigger for the Intra-Allerød cold period
|journal=Geology
|month=February
|year=2005
|volume=33
|issue=2
|pages=89-92
|url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/33/2/89.abstract
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1130/G21043.1
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-04 }}</ref>

==Pleistocene==

The Pleistocene dates from 2.588 x 10<sup>6</sup> to 11,700 b2k.

==Older Dryas==
[[Image:Older Dryas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Comparison of the GRIP ice core with cores from the Cariaco Basin shows the Older Dryas. Credit: Konrad A Hughes, Jonathan T. Overpeck, Larry C. Peterson & Susan Trumbore.]]
"Older Dryas [...] events [occurred about 13,400 b2k]".<ref name=Hughes>{{ cite journal
|author=Konrad A. Hughes
|author2=Jonathan T. Overpeck
|author3=Larry C. Peterson
|author4=Susan Trumbore
|title=Rapid climate changes in the tropical Atlantic region during the last deglaciation
|journal=
|month=7 March
|year=1996
|volume=380
|issue=
|pages=51-4
|url=http://www.diagonalarida.cl/SemV/Hughen_etal_1996_tropicalAtlantic.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-05 }}</ref>

"The most negative δ <sup>18</sup>O excursions seen in the GRIP record lasted approximately 131 and 21 years for the [inter-Allerød cold period] IACP and [Older Dryas] OD, respectively. The comparable events in the Cariaco basin were of similar duration, 127 and 21 years. In addition to the chronological agreement, there is also considerable similarity in the decade-scale patterns of variability in both records. Given the geographical distance separating central Greenland from the southern Caribbean Sea, the close match of the pattern and duration of decadal events between the two records is striking."<ref name=Hughes>{{ cite journal
|author=Konrad A. Hughes
|author2=Jonathan T. Overpeck
|author3=Larry C. Peterson
|author4=Susan Trumbore
|title=Rapid climate changes in the tropical Atlantic region during the last deglaciation
|journal=
|month=7 March
|year=1996
|volume=380
|issue=
|pages=51-4
|url=http://www.diagonalarida.cl/SemV/Hughen_etal_1996_tropicalAtlantic.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-05 }}</ref>

In the figures on the right, especially b, is a detailed "comparison of δ <sup>18</sup>O from the GRIP ice core<sup>24</sup> with changes in a continuous sequence of light-lamina thickness measurements from core PL07-57PC. Both records are constrained by annual chronologies, although neither record is sampled at annual resolution. The interval of comparison includes the inter-Allerød cold period (12.9-13 cal. kyr BP) and Older Dryas (13.4 cal. kyr BP) events (IABP and OD from a). The durations of the two events, measured independently in both records, are very similar, as is the detailed pattern of variability at the decadal timescale."<ref name=Hughes/>
{{clear}}

==Marine Isotope Stage 1==

The Earth is currently experiencing an interglacial period (warming) during the present Quaternary Ice Age, identified as the "Marine Isotope Stage 1" (MIS1) in the Holocene epoch (or recently the Anthropocene epoch).

Dansgaard–Oeschger events are considered switches between states of the climate system.<ref>{{Cite journal
 | year=2009
 |author1=V. N. Livina |author2=F. Kwasniok |author3=T. M. Lenton | title=Potential analysis reveals changing number of climate states during the last 60 kyr
 | url= http://www.clim-past.net/6/77/2010/cp-6-77-2010.pdf 
 | publisher= European Geosciences Union
 | journal= Climate of the Past
 | doi= 10.5194/cpd-5-2223-2009
 | volume=5
 | pages=2223–2237
}}</ref>

The Holocene period began around 11,700 years ago and continues to the present.<ref>[http://www.stratigraphy.org/ics%20chart/09_2010/StratChart2010.pdf "International Stratigraphic Chart"]. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2010. Retrieved 24&nbsp;February 2012.</ref> Identified with the current warm period, known as "Marine Isotope Stage 1", or MIS 1, the Holocene is considered an interglacial period in the Quaternary glaciation or current Ice Age.

==Bølling Oscillation==
[[Image:Wohlfarth Boreas timelines.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Greenland ice-core oxygen isotope (δ <sup>18</sup>O) stratigraphy. Credit: Barbara Wohlfarth.]]
The "intra-Bølling cold period [IBCP is a century-scale cold event and the] Bølling warming [occurs] at 14600 cal [calendar years] BP (12700 <sup>14</sup>C BP)".<ref name=Yu>{{ cite journal
|author=Zicheng Yu
|author2=Ulrich Eicher
|title=Three Amphi-Atlantic Century-Scale Cold Events during the Bølling-Allerød Warm Period
|journal=Géographie physique et Quaternaire
|year=2001
|volume=55
|issue=2
|pages=171-9
|url=http://www.lehigh.edu/~ziy2/pubs/YuGpQPreprint.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.7202/008301ar
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-04 }}</ref>

The "Bølling was originally defined as starting from 13000 <sup>14</sup>C BP (calibrated to ~15650 cal BP; Stuiver et al., 1998). [...] independent annual chronology indicate a much later onset of the Bølling (e.g., 14600 cal BP".<ref name=Yu/>

"During the IBCP and perhaps also IACP, δ <sup>18</sup>O values inversely correlate with δ <sup>13</sup>C, but during the OD δ <sup>18</sup>O shows positive correlation with δ <sup>13</sup>C, suggesting dry conditions with high evaporation, as well as cold."<ref name=Yu/>

==Bølling interstadial==

The Bølling interstadial corresponds to GIS 1 as shown in the diagram on the right.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

MIS Boundary 1/2 is at 14 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>
{{clear}}

==Marine Isotope Stage 2==

Termination I, also known as the Last Glacial Termination, is the end of Marine isotope stage 2.

==Oldest Dryas==

"During the Late Weichselian glacial maximum (20-15 ka BP) the overriding of ice streams eventually lead to strong glaciotectonic displacement of Late Pleistocene and pre-Quaternary deposits and to deposition of till."<ref name=Houmark/>

The "minimum point of GIS-2b (Greenland Stadial sub-event b) [is] identified by Bjork et al. 1998 [at] 17.687 ka BP".<ref name=Leigh>{{ cite book
|author=Sasha Naomi Bharier Leigh
|title=A STUDY OF THE DYNAMICS OF THE BRITISH ICE SHEET DURING MARINE ISOTOPE STAGES 2 AND 3, FOCUSING ON HEINRICH EVENTS 2 AND 4 AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC GLACIOLOGICAL AND CLIMATOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
|publisher=University of St Andrews
|location=St Andrews, Scotland
|date=2007
|editor=
|pages=219
|url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/525/Sasha%20Leigh%20MPhil%20thesis.pdf?sequence=1
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2017-02-16 }}</ref>

"The synchronous and nearly uniform lowering of snowlines in Southern Hemisphere middle-latitude mountains compared with Northern Hemisphere values suggests global cooling of about the same magnitude in both hemispheres at the [Last Glacial Maximum] LGM. When compared with paleoclimate records from the North Atlantic region, the middle-latitude Southern Hemisphere terrestrial data imply interhemispheric symmetry of the structure and timing of the last glacial/interglacial transition. In both regions atmospheric warming pulses are implicated near the beginning of Oldest Dryas time (~14,600 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP) and near the Oldest Dryas/Bølling transition (~12,700-13,000 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP). The second of these warming pulses was coincident with resumption of North Atlantic thermohaline circulation similar to that of the modern mode, with strong formation of Lower North Atlantic Deep Water in the Nordic Seas. In both regions, the maximum Bølling-age warmth was achieved at 12,200-12,500 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP, and was followed by a reversal in climate trend. In the North Atlantic region, and possibly in middle latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, this reversal culminated in a Younger-Dryas-age cold pulse."<ref name=Denton>{{ cite journal
|author=George H. Denton
|author2=Thomas V. Lowell
|author3=Calvin J. Heusser
|author4=Patricio I. Moreno
|author5=Bjørn G. Andersen
|author6=Linda E. Heusser
|author7=Christian Schlüchter
|author8=David R. Marchant
|title=Interhemispheric Linkage of Paleoclimate during the Last Glaciation
|journal=Geografiska Annaler. Series A, Physical Geography
|year=1999
|volume=81A
|issue=2
|pages=107-53
|url=http://people.bu.edu/marchant/Dave_FullText_Papers/Denton_GA_1999.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-05 }}</ref>

==Meiendorf Interstadial==
[[Image:Late glacial temperature curve1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Temperature curve of late glacial period, from NGRIP greenland ice core oxygen isotope ratio. Credit: [[commons:User:Merikanto|Merikanto]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
The period spans starting at the far right of the image on the right from Lascaux interstadial to Heinrich event H1, and to Meiendorf/Bölling warm stage, and Alleröd warm stage, to Younger dryas and early holocene.

The Dansgaard-Oeschger event 1 corresponds to the Meiendorf Interstadial.

The beginning of the Meiendorf Interstadial is around 14,700 b2k.
{{clear}}

==Heinrich event H1==

This stadial starts about 17.5 ka, extends to about 15.5 ka and is followed after a brief warming by H1.

==Dolní Veštonice cold event 6-7==

This stadial occurred at 16 ka.

The Dolní Veštonice (DV) are cold events marked by ice wedges in the upper loess of Dolní Veštonice.

==Altonian==

The Altonian began about 19.0-18.7 Ma and lasted to 15.9 Ma.

==Lascaux interstadial==

The Lascaux interstadial begins about 21 ka and extends to about 18 ka.

==Jylland stade==

"After c. 22 ka BP during the Jylland stade (Houmark-Nielsen 1989), Late Weichselian glaciers of the Main Weichselain advance overrode Southeast Denmark from the northeast and later the Young Baltic ice invaded from southeasterly directions. Traces of the Northeast-ice are apparently absent in the Klintholm sections, although large scale glaciotectonic structures and till deposits from this advance are found in Hjelm Bugt and Møns Klint (Aber 1979; Berthelsen 1981, 1986). At Klintholm, the younger phase of glaciotectonic deformation from the southeast and south and deposition of the discordant till (unit 9) were most probably associated with recessional phases of the Young Baltic glaciation. In several cliff sections, well preserved Late Glacial (c. 14-10 ka BP) lacustrine sequences are present (Kolstrup 1982, Heiberg 1991)."<ref name=Houmark/>

The Jylland stadial corresponds to Dolní Veštonice cold event 3-4 at about 21.2 ka.

==Laugerie Interstadial==
[[Image:Lascaux-Interstadial.png|right|thumb|250px|Diagram showings the position of the Lascaux interstadial (marked in red and orange) within the time range 10 to 30 ky BP. Credit: [[commons:User:Rudolf Pohl|Rudolf Pohl]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
The weak interstadial corresponding to GIS 2 (Dansgaard-Oeschger event 2) occurred about 23.2 kyr B.P.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

The δ18O values from GISP-2 follow the diagram of Wolfgang Weißmüller. The positions of the Dansgaard-Oeschger events DO1 to DO4 and the Heinrich events H1 to H3 are also indicated. DV 3-4 and DV 6-7 are cold events marked by ice wedges in the upper loess of Dolní Veštonice.
{{clear}}

==Letzteiszeitliches Maximum==

This glacial advance begins about 26 ka and ends abruptly at about 23.4 ka.

==Dansgaard-Oeschger event 3==

The stronger GIS 3 interstadial occurred about 27.6 kyr B.P.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

It begins abruptly at 29 ka and ends about 26 ka.

"GIS 3 (start) 25.571 [to] GIS 3 (end) 25.337 ka BP".<ref name=Leigh/>

==Stadial==

Heinrich Event 3 (H3) "occurs at 26.74 ka BP, coincident with the start of the transition into GIS 4."<ref name=Leigh>{{ cite book
|author=Sasha Naomi Bharier Leigh
|title=A STUDY OF THE DYNAMICS OF THE BRITISH ICE SHEET DURING MARINE ISOTOPE STAGES 2 AND 3, FOCUSING ON HEINRICH EVENTS 2 AND 4 AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC GLACIOLOGICAL AND CLIMATOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
|publisher=University of St Andrews
|location=St Andrews, Scotland
|date=2007
|editor=
|pages=219
|url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/525/Sasha%20Leigh%20MPhil%20thesis.pdf?sequence=1
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2017-02-16 }}</ref>

MIS Boundary 2/3 is at 29 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

"Stadial duration 0.768 ka".<ref name=Leigh/>

==Møn interstadial==

The Møn interstadial (Dansgaard-Oeschger event 4) corresponds to GIS 4 at 29 ka.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

==Klintholm advance==

This advance occurred after the Møn and ended with GIS 6.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

"Stadial duration 2.899 ka".<ref name=Leigh/>

==GIS 5==

GIS 5 interstadial occurred during the Klintholm advance about 33.5 kyr B.P.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

"GIS 5 (start) 30.013 [to] GIS 5 (end) 29.526 ka BP".<ref name=Leigh/>

The earliest evidence of humans using wild flax as a textile comes from the present-day Republic of Georgia, where spun, dyed, and knotted wild flax fibers found in Dzudzuana Cave date to the Upper Paleolithic, 30,000 years ago.<ref name="VintageThreads">{{cite web
|title= These Vintage Threads Are 30,000 Years Old
|publisher= NPR |accessdate= 2010-11-13
|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101204031535/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=112726804&sc=fb&cc=fp |archive-date= 2010-12-04 }}</ref><ref name=Balter>{{cite journal | last1 = Balter | first1 = M | year = 2009 | title = Clothes make the (Hu) Man | journal = Science | volume = 325 | issue = 5946| page = 1329 | doi = 10.1126/science.325_1329a | pmid = 19745126 }}</ref><ref name=Kvavadze>{{cite journal | last1 = Kvavadze | first1 = E | last2 = Bar-Yosef | first2 = O | last3 = Belfer-Cohen | first3 = A | last4 = Boaretto | first4 = E | last5 = Jakeli | first5 = N | last6 = Matskevich | first6 = Z | last7 = Meshveliani | first7 = T | year = 2009 | title = 30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers | url = http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4270521| journal = Science | volume = 325 | issue = 5946| page = 1359 | doi = 10.1126/science.1175404 | pmid = 19745144 | bibcode = 2009Sci...325.1359K | s2cid = 206520793 }}</ref> Humans first domesticated flax in the Fertile Crescent region.<ref name=Fu>{{cite journal |author= Fu, Y.-B. |year= 2011 |title= Genetic evidence for early flax domestication with capsular dehiscence |journal= Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |volume= 58 |issue= 8 |pages= 1119–1128 |doi= 10.1007/s10722-010-9650-9|s2cid= 22424329 }}</ref>

==Stadial==

Stadial duration 0.836 ka""<ref name=Leigh/>

==Ålesund Interstadial==

The Ålesund interstadial began with GIS 6 and ended after GIS 8.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

"GIS 6 (start) 31.218 [to] GIS 6 (end) 30.849 ka BP".<ref name=Leigh/>

==Stadial==

"Stadial duration 0.932 ka".<ref name=Leigh/>

==GIS 7 interstadial==

"GIS 7 (start) 32.896 [to] GIS 7 (end) 32.15 ka BP".<ref name=Leigh/>

==Stadial==

"Stadial duration 0.642 ka".<ref name=Leigh/>

==Huneborg interstadial==

The Huneborg interstadial is a Greenland interstadial dating 36.5-38.5 kyr B.P. GIS 8.<ref name=Wohlfarth>{{ cite journal
|author=Barbara Wohlfarth
|title=Ice-free conditions in Sweden during Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 3?
|journal=Boreas
|date=April 2010
|volume=39
|issue=
|pages=377-98
|url=http://people.su.se/~wohlf/pdf/Wohlfarth%20Boreas%202010.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1111/j.1502-3885.2009.00137.x
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-06 }}</ref>

The Denekamp interstadial corresponds to the Huneborg interstadial.

"GIS 8 (start) 35.716 [to] GIS 8 (end) 33.977 ka BP".<ref name=Leigh/>

==Heinrich Event 4==

Heinrich Event 4 "33-39.93 ka BP".<ref name=Leigh/>

==Hengelo interstadial==

The Hengelo interstadial [is] > 35 ka BP".<ref name=Houmark>{{ cite journal
|author=Michael Houmark-Nielsen,
|title=Late Pleistocene stratigraphy, glaciation chronology and Middle Weichselian environmental history from Klintholm, Møn, Denmark
|journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark
|date=30 November 1994
|volume=41
|issue=2
|pages=181-202
|url=http://2dgf.dk/xpdf/bull41-02-181-202.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-03 }}</ref>

The "Hengelo Interstadial [is] (38–36 ka ago)."<ref name=Nikonov>{{ cite journal
|author=A.A. Nikonov
|author2=M.M. Shakhnovich
|author3=J. van der Plicht
|title=Age of Mammoth Remains from the Submoraine Sediments of the Kola Peninsula and Karelia
|journal=Doklady Earth Sciences
|year=2011
|volume=436
|issue=2
|pages=308-10
|url=http://cio.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2011/DoklEarthSciNikonov/2011DoklEarthSciNikonov.pdf?origin=publication_detail
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-06 }}</ref>

"An evolution with the coldest phases (coarsest grains) between 27,000 and 10,000 years B.P., 52,000 and 34,000 years B.P., and 76,000 and 60,000 years B.P. and relatively warmer intervals (finer grain size) in between is obvious. Apparently, they reflect a 21,000-year periodicity. This trend is superposed by much shorter oscillations of a duration of one to a few thousand years. Their duration is similar to the Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillations in the ice-core records. Some well-defined stadials and interstadials from the terrestrial records show also such a duration: for instance, the Hengelo interstadial around 37-38,500 <sup>14</sup>C years B.P. (Zagwijn, 1974; Kasse et al., 1995) and the preceding Hasselo stadial at approximately 40-38,500 <sup>14</sup>C years B.P. (Van Huissteden, 1990)."<ref name=Vandenberghe>{{ cite journal
|author=J. Vandenberghe
|author2=G. Nugteren
|title=Rapid climatic changes recorded in loess successions
|journal=Global and Planetary Change
|year=2001
|volume=28
|issue=1-9
|pages=222-30
|url=http://shixi.bnu.edu.cn/field-trips/cooperation/ChinaSweden/the%20link/1.1.4.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-11-06 }}</ref>

==Hasselo stadial==
[[Image:Polarity reversal global event.jpg|center|thumb|400px|The polarity reversal some 41,000 years ago was a global event. Credit: Norbert Nowaczyk and Helge Arz, Helmholtz Centre Potsdam - GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences.]]
The "Hasselo stadial [is] at approximately 40-38,500 <sup>14</sup>C years B.P. (Van Huissteden, 1990)."<ref name=Vandenberghe/>

The "Hasselo Stadial [is a glacial advance] (44–39 ka ago)".<ref name=Nikonov/> 

The Hasselo stadial corresponds to the Skjonghelleren stadial in Norway but to the Sejrø interstadial in Denmark.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

"Paleomagnetic samples were obtained from cores taken during the drilling of a research well along Coyote Creek in San Jose, California, in order to use the geomagnetic field behavior recorded in those samples to provide age constraints for the sediment encountered. The well reached a depth of 308 meters and material apparently was deposited largely (entirely?) during the Brunhes Normal Polarity Chron, which lasted from 780 ka to the present time."<ref name= Mankinen>{{ cite book
|author=Edward A. Mankinen
|author2=Carl M. Wentworth
|title=Preliminary Paleomagnetic Results from the Coyote Creek Outdoor Classroom Drill Hole, Santa Clara Valley, California
|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey
|location=
|date=10 June 2003
|url=http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/open-file/of03-187/
|accessdate=2016-11-04 }}</ref>

"Three episodes of anomalous magnetic inclinations were recorded in parts of the sedimentary sequence; the uppermost two we correlate to the Mono Lake (~30 ka) geomagnetic excursion and 6 cm lower, tentatively to the Laschamp (~45 ka) excursion."<ref name= Mankinen/>

"Some 41,000 years ago, a complete and rapid reversal of the geomagnetic field occured. Magnetic studies on sediment cores from the Black Sea show that during this period, during the last ice age, a compass at the Black Sea would have pointed to the south instead of north."<ref name= Nowaczyk>{{ cite book
|author=Norbert R. Nowaczyk
|author2=Helge Arz
|title=Ice age polarity reversal was global event: Extremely brief reversal of geomagnetic field, climate variability, and super volcano
|publisher=Helmholtz Centre Potsdam - GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences
|location=ScienceDaily
|date=16 October 2012
|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121016084936.htm
|accessdate=2016-11-04 }}</ref>

"[A]dditional data from other studies in the North Atlantic, the South Pacific and Hawaii, prove that this polarity reversal was a global event."<ref name= Nowaczyk/>

"The field geometry of reversed polarity, with field lines pointing into the opposite direction when compared to today's configuration, lasted for only about 440 years, and it was associated with a field strength that was only one quarter of today's field."<ref name= Nowaczyk/>

"The actual polarity changes lasted only 250 years. In terms of geological time scales, that is very fast."<ref name= Nowaczyk/>

"During this period, the field was even weaker, with only 5% of today's field strength. As a consequence, Earth nearly completely lost its protection shield against hard cosmic rays, leading to a significantly increased radiation exposure."<ref name= Nowaczyk/>

"This is documented by peaks of radioactive beryllium (<sup>10</sup>Be) in ice cores from this time, recovered from the Greenland ice sheet. <sup>10</sup>Be as well as radioactive carbon (<sup>14</sup>C) is caused by the collision of high-energy protons from space with atoms of the atmosphere."<ref name= Nowaczyk/>

"The polarity reversal [...] has already been known for 45 years. It was first discovered after the analysis of the magnetisation of several lava flows near the village Laschamp near Clermont-Ferrand in the Massif Central, which differed significantly from today's direction of the geomagnetic field. Since then, this geomagnetic feature is known as the 'Laschamp event'."<ref name= Nowaczyk/>

The "new data from the Black Sea give a complete image of geomagnetic field variability at a high temporal resolution."<ref name= Nowaczyk/>
{{clear}}

==Moershoofd interstadial==
[[Image:29831501.jpg|thumb|center|400px|These three maps show a succession of artefacts in western and southern Europe. Credit: Catherine Brahic.]]
The Moershoofd interstadial has a <sup>14</sup>C date of 44-46 kyr B.P. and corresponds to GIS 12 at 45-47 kyr B.P.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>
{{clear}}

==Marine Isotope Stage 3==

'''Inca Huasi''' was a paleolake in the Andes named by a research team in 2006.<ref name=Placzek2006>{{cite journal
|last1=Placzek
|first1=C.
|last2=Quade
|first2=J.
|last3=Patchett
|first3=P. J.
|title=Geochronology and stratigraphy of late Pleistocene lake cycles on the southern Bolivian Altiplano: Implications for causes of tropical climate change
|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin
|date=8 May 2006
|volume=118
|issue=5-6
|pages=515–532
|doi=10.1130/B25770.1 }}</ref>

It existed about 46,000 years ago in the Salar de Uyuni basin.<ref name=Placzek2006/> Water levels during this episode rose by about {{convert|10|m}}. Overall, this lake cycle was short and not deep,<ref name=Placzek2006/> with water levels reaching a height of {{convert|3670|m}}. The lake would have had a surface of {{convert|21000|km2}}.<ref name=Placzek2013>{{cite journal
|last1=Placzek
|first1=C.J.
|last2=Quade
|first2=J.
|last3=Patchett
|first3=P.J.
|title=A 130ka reconstruction of rainfall on the Bolivian Altiplano
|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters
|date=February 2013
|volume=363
|pages=97–108
|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2012.12.017 }}</ref> Most water was contributed to it by the Uyuni-Coipasa drainage basin, with only minimal contributions from Lake Titicaca.<ref name="PlaczekQuade2011">{{cite journal
|last1=Placzek
|first1=Christa J.
|last2=Quade
|first2=Jay
|last3=Patchett
|first3=P. Jonathan
|title=Isotopic tracers of paleohydrologic change in large lakes of the Bolivian Altiplano
|journal=Quaternary Research
|date=January 2011
|volume=75
|issue=1
|page=239
|doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2010.08.004
}}</ref> Changes in the South American monsoon may have triggered its formation.<ref name=Zech/>

Radiocarbon dates on tufa which formed in Lake Inca Huasi were dated at 45,760 ± 440 years ago.<ref name=Placzek2006/> Uranium-thorium dating has yielded ages between 45,760 and 47,160 years.<ref name=Placzek2006/> Overall the lake existed between 46,000 and 47,000 years ago.<ref name=Placzek2013/> The Inca Huasi cycle coincides with the marine isotope stage 3,<ref name="ZechGlaser2008">{{cite journal
|last1=Zech
|first1=Michael
|last2=Glaser
|first2=Bruno
|title=Improved compound-specificδ13C analysis of n-alkanes for application in palaeoenvironmental studies
|journal=Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry
|date=30 January 2008
|volume=22
|issue=2
|page=136
|doi=10.1002/rcm.3342
}}</ref> the formation of a deep lake in the Laguna Pozuelos basin and the expansion of glaciers in several parts of South America.<ref name="WardThornton2017">{{cite journal
|last1=Ward
|first1=D.
|last2=Thornton
|first2=R.
|last3=Cesta
|first3=J.
|title=Across the Arid Diagonal: deglaciation of the western Andean Cordillera in southwest Bolivia and northern Chile
|journal=Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica
|date=15 September 2017
|volume=43
|issue=2
|page=689
|doi=10.18172/cig.3209
|url=https://publicaciones.unirioja.es/ojs/index.php/cig/article/view/3209
|language=es
|issn=1697-9540
}}</ref>

This lake cycle took part during a glacial epoch, along with the Sajsi lake cycles.<ref name=Placzek2006/> A more humid climate in northeastern Argentina and elsewhere in subtropical South America has been linked to the Inca Huasi phase.<ref name=Zech/> However, rainfall might not have increased by much on the Altiplano during the Inca Huasi cycle.<ref name=Placzek2013/>

Other paleolakes are Coipasa, Ouki, Minchin, Sajsi, Salinas and Tauca.<ref name=Placzek2006/> Research made in 2006 attributed the "Lake Minchin" to this lake phase.<ref name=Zech>{{cite journal
|last1=Zech
|first1=Michael
|last2=Zech
|first2=Roland
|last3=Morrás
|first3=Héctor
|last4=Moretti
|first4=Lucas
|last5=Glaser
|first5=Bruno
|last6=Zech
|first6=Wolfgang
|title=Late Quaternary environmental changes in Misiones, subtropical NE Argentina, deduced from multi-proxy geochemical analyses in a palaeosol-sediment sequence
|journal=Quaternary International
|date=March 2009
|volume=196
|issue=1-2
|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2008.06.006 }}</ref>

The site was dated to Marine Isotope Stage 3 using Optically Stimulated Luminescence dating of the sand from the two layers of deposits within the channel.<ref name=Boismier>{{Cite journal
|last=Boismier
|first=B.
|year=2002
|title=Lynford Quarry, A Neanderthal butchery site
|journal=Current Archaeology
|issue=182
|volume=16
|pages=53-58}}</ref>

Eruptions occurred at Monte Burney (a volcano in southern Chile, part of its Austral Volcanic Zone which consists of six volcanoes with activity during the Quaternary) during the Pleistocene. Two eruptions around 49,000 ± 500 and 48,000 ± 500 years before present deposited tephra in Laguna Potrok Aike,<ref name=Kliem>{{Cite journal
|last=Kliem
|first=P.
|last2=Buylaert
|first2=J. P.
|last3=Hahn
|first3=A.
|last4=Mayr
|first4=C.
|last5=Murray
|first5=A. S.
|last6=Ohlendorf
|first6=C.
|last7=Veres
|first7=D.
|last8=Wastegård
|first8=S.
|last9=Zolitschka
|first9=B.
|date=2013-07-01
|title=Magnitude, geomorphologic response and climate links of lake level oscillations at Laguna Potrok Aike, Patagonian steppe (Argentina)
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379112003411
|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews
|series=Potrok Aike Maar Lake Sediment Archive Drilling Project (PASADO)
|volume=71
|pages=131–146
|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.08.023
}}</ref> a lake approximately {{convert|300|km}} east of Monte Burney;<ref name=Anselmetti>{{Cite journal
|first1=Flavio S.
|last1=Anselmetti
|first2=Daniel
|last2=Ariztegui
|first3=Marc
|last3=De Batist
|first4=Catalina A.
|last4=Gebhardt
|first5=Torsten
|last5=Haberzettl
|first6=Frank
|last6=Niessen
|first7=Christian
|last7=Ohlendorf
|first8=Bernd
|last8=Zolitschka
|date=2009-06-01
|title=Environmental history of southern Patagonia unravelled by the seismic stratigraphy of Laguna Potrok Aike
|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/wol1/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01002.x/abstract
|journal=Sedimentology
|volume=56
|issue=4
|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01002.x/abstract
|issn=1365-3091
}}</ref> there they reach thicknesses of {{convert|48|cm}} and {{convert|8|cm}} respectively.<ref name=Kliem/> Other Pleistocene eruptions are recorded there at 26,200 and 31,000 years ago,<ref name=Wastegard/> with additional eruptions having occurred during marine isotope stage 3.<ref name=Wastegard>{{Cite journal
|last=Wastegård
|first=S.
|last2=Veres
|first2=D.
|last3=Kliem
|first3=P.
|last4=Hahn
|first4=A.
|last5=Ohlendorf
|first5=C.
|last6=Zolitschka
|first6=B.
|date=2013-07-01
|title=Towards a late Quaternary tephrochronological framework for the southernmost part of South America – the Laguna Potrok Aike tephra record
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379112004155
|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews
|series=Potrok Aike Maar Lake Sediment Archive Drilling Project (PASADO)
|volume=71
|pages=81–90
|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.10.019 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Glinde interstadial==

The Glinde interstadial has a <sup>14</sup>C date of 48-50 kyr B.P. and corresponds to GIS ?13/14 with a GIS age of 49-54.5 kyr B.P.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

==Ebersdorf Stadial==

This corresponds to the Skjonghelleren Glaciation of Scandinavia where ice crosses the North Sea between 50-40 ka BP.

==Oerel interstadial==

The Oerel interstadial has a <sup>14</sup>C date of 53-58 kyr B.P. and corresponds to GIS 15/16 with a GIS age of 56-59 kyr B.P.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

MIS Boundary 3/4 is at 57 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Karmøy stadial==

The Karmøy stadial begins in the high mountains of Norway about 58 kyr B.P. and expands to the outer coast by 60 kyr B.P.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

The Schalkholz Stadial in North Germany is equivalent.

==Odderade interstadial==

The Odderade interstadial has a <sup>14</sup>C date of 61-72 kyr B.P. and corresponds to GIS 21.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

MIS Boundary 4/5 is at 71 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Marine Isotope Stage 4==

"The glacial episode of Marine Isotope Stage 4 [was] about 57-71,000 years ago".<ref name=ROCEEH>{{ cite book
|author=ROCEEH
|title=File:Motm 2010 07 Howiesons Poort.pdf
|publisher=Wikimedia
|location=
|date=1 July 2010
|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Motm_2010_07_Howiesons_Poort.pdf
|accessdate=11 July 2018 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Ognon III interstadial==

==Ognon II interstadial==

"The overlying loess, colluvial sediments and humiferous soils that end the palaeosol succession belong to the Ognon II and III interstadials; they record the onset of the early Pleniglacial (MIS stage 4)".<ref name=Haesaert>{{ cite journal
|author=Paul Haesaerts & Hans Mestdagh
|title=Pedosedimentary evolution of the last interglacial and early glacial sequence in the European loess belt from Belgium to central Russia
|journal=Netherlands Journal of Geosciences
|date=30 March 2000
|volume=79
|issue=2/3
|pages=313-324
|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/D5638FD7EEC7F7425B6FD6F2688A5A8D/S001677460002179Xa.pdf/pedosedimentary_evolution_of_the_last_interglacial_and_early_glacial_sequence_in_the_european_loess_belt_from_belgium_to_central_russia.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=16 October 2021 }}</ref>

==Wisconsinian glacial==
{{main|Original research/Glaciations#Wisconsin glaciations}}
Wisconsinian glacial began at 80,000 yr BP.<ref name=VanLandingham/>

==Rederstall Stadial==

MIS Boundary 5.1 (Ognon I, peak) is at 82 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 5.2 (Melisey II, Saint-Germain II, peak) is at 87 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 5.3 (Saint-Germain I) is at 96 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Brørup interstadial==

The "Brørup interstade [is about] 100 ka BP".<ref name=Houmark/> It corresponds to GIS 23/24.<ref name=Wohlfarth/>

MIS Boundary 5.4 (peak) is at 109 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Herning Stadial==

MIS Boundary 5.5 (peak) is at 123 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Eemian interglacial==

The "controversially split Eemian period, the predecessor of our own warm period about 125,000 years ago."<ref name=Dansgaard/>

"The Eem interglaciation […] lasted from 131 to 117 kyr B.P."<ref name=Dansgaard/>

The Eemian is MIS substage 5e.

==Late Pleistocene==

Late Pleistocene spans ca. 11,000-150,000 yr BP.<ref name=VanLandingham/>

MIS Boundary 5/6 is at 130 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Haweran==

The Haweran began 0.34 Ma and extends to the present.

==Sangamon Episode interglacial==

"OSL dates also suggest that last interglacial (MIS 5; Sangamon Ep.) fluvial deposits are preserved locally."<ref name=McKay/>

Age "assignment of Sangamonian (''sense alto'' = 80,000-ca. 220,000 yr BP) [is] to Illinoian (ca. 220,000-430,000 yr BP)".<ref name=VanLandingham/>

MIS Boundary 6/7 is at 191 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Middle Pleistocene==

Middle Pleistocene spans ca. 150,000-730,000 yr BP.<ref name=VanLandingham/>

==Illinois Episode glaciation==

"Ages of sediments immediately beneath the oldest till (Kellerville Mbr.) in the bedrock valley average 160 ka and provide direct confirmation that Illinois Episode (IE) glaciation began in its type area during marine isotope stage (MIS) 6. The oldest deposits found are 190 ka fluvial sands on bedrock in the deepest part of the valley. These correlate to earliest MIS 6. We now correlate the lowest deposits to the IE (Pearl Fm.)."<ref name=McKay>{{ cite journal
|author=E. Donald McKay III
|title=Optical Ages Spanning Two Glacial-Interglacial Cycles from Deposits of the Ancient Mississippi River, North-Central Illinois
|journal=Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs
|month=24-25 April
|year=2008
|volume=40
|issue=5
|pages=78
|url=https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2008NC/finalprogram/abstract_137641.htm
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-06-11 }}</ref>

The "last two glacial cycles [span] MIS 6 through 2".<ref name=McKay/>

"Illinoian [is] (ca. 220,000-430,000 yr BP)".<ref name=VanLandingham/>

MIS Boundary 10/11 is at 374 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 9/10 is at 337 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 8/9 is at 300 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 7/8 is at 243 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Yarmouthian interglacial==

"Clay deposition in the Piauí River floodplain around 436 ± 51.5 ka occurred during a warmer period of the [Yarmouthian interglaciation] Aftonian interglaciation, corresponding to isotope stage 12 (Ericson and Wollin, 1968)."<ref name=Santos>{{ cite journal
|author=Janaina C. Santos
|author2=Alcina Magnólia Franca BarretoII
|author3=Kenitiro Suguio
|title=Quaternary deposits in the Serra da Capivara National Park and surrounding area, Southeastern Piauí state, Brazil
|journal=Geologia USP. Série Científica
|month=16 August
|year=2012
|volume=12
|issue=3
|pages=
|url=http://ppegeo.igc.usp.br/scielo.php?pid=S1519-874X2012000300009&script=sci_arttext
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.5327/Z1519-874X2012000300008
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-01-20 }}</ref>

Yarmouthian spans 420,000-500,000 yr BP.<ref name=VanLandingham>{{ cite journal
|author=Sam L. VanLandingham
|title=Use of diatoms in determining age and paleoenvironment of the Valsequillo (Hueyatiaco) early man site, Puebla, Mexsico, with corroboration by Chrysophyta cysts for a maximum Yarmouthian (430,000-500,00yr BP) age of the artifacts
|journal=Nova Hedwigia
|month=May
|year=2010
|volume=136
|issue=
|pages=127-38
|url=http://www.pleistocenecoalition.com/vanlandingham/VanLandingham_2010b.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-06-11 }}</ref>

MIS Boundary 12/13 is at 478 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 11/12 is at 424 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Anglian==
{{main|Original research/Glaciations#Elster glaciations}}
The Anglian Stage is the name used in the British Isles for a middle Pleistocene glaciation that precedes the Hoxnian Stage and follows the Cromerian Stage, is correlated to Marine Isotope Stage 12 (MIS 12),<ref name="McMillan11">{{cite journal |author=McMillan, A.A. |title=A provisional Quaternary and Neogene lithostratigraphic framework Great Britain |journal=Netherland Journal of Geosciences |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=87–107 |year=2005 |doi=10.1017/S0016774600022988 }}</ref><ref name="Walker1">{{cite book |author=Walker, M. |title=Quaternary Dating Methods |publisher=Wiley |location=Chichester UK |year=2005 |isbn=0-470-86927-5 }}</ref><ref name="GibbardOthers2007">{{cite web|author1=Gibbard, P.L. |author2=Boreham, S. |author3=Cohen, K.M. |author4=Moscariello, A. |title=Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years |date=2007 |publisher=Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge |location=Cambridge UK |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910122430/http://www.quaternary.stratigraphy.org.uk/correlation/POSTERSTRAT_v2007b_small.jpg |archive-date=2008-09-10 }}</ref> which started about 478,000 years ago and ended about 424,000 years ago.<ref name=" Lisiecki2005"/><ref name="LisieckiRaymo">{{cite journal |author=Lisiecki, L.E.|author2 =  Raymo, M.E.
|title=A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic d18O records |journal=Paleoceanography |volume=20 |pages=PA1003 |date=2005 |doi=10.1029/2004PA001071 |url=http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LisieckiRaymo2005.pdf |bibcode=2005PalOc..20.1003L|hdl=2027.42/149224 }}</ref>

The Anglian stage has often been correlated to the Elsterian Stage of northern Continental Europe and the Mindel Stage in the Alps; however, there is ambiguity regarding the correlation of these two glacials to either MIS 12 or MIS 10.<ref>[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.734.1691&rep=rep1&type=pdf Böse et al. (2012), Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe, Quaternary Science Reviews 44, page 17-22.]</ref>

The Anglian was the most extreme glaciation during the last 2 million years, where the ice sheet reached the Isles of Scilly and the Western Approaches, the furthest south the ice reached in any Pleistocene ice age.<ref>Scourse, JD (ed) (2006) The Isles of Scilly: Field Guide.  Quaternary Research Association, London, 2006.</ref> In the south-east of England it diverted the River Thames from its old course through the Vale of St Albans south to its present position.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140605090108/http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/geodiversity/englands/counties/area_ID14.aspx
|archive-date=5 June 2014|publisher=Natural England|title=Greater London|accessdate=28 March 2013}}</ref>

This stage had been equated to the Kansan Stage in North America; however, the terms Kansan Stage, along with Yarmouth, Nebraskan, and Aftonian stages, have been abandoned by North American Quaternary geologists and merged into the Pre-Illinoian stage.<ref name="Hallberg1">{{cite journal |author=Hallberg, G.R. |title=Pre-Wisconsin glacial stratigraphy of the Central Plains region in Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=5 |pages=11–15 |date=1986 |bibcode=1986QSRv....5...11H |doi=10.1016/0277-3791(86)90169-1 }}</ref><ref name="RichmondOther1">{{cite journal |author1=Richmond, G.M. |author2=Fullerton, D.S. |title=Summation of Quaternary glaciations in the United States of America |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=5 |pages=183–196 |year=1986 |bibcode=1986QSRv....5..183R |doi=10.1016/0277-3791(86)90184-8 }}</ref> The Anglian Stage is now correlated with the period of time which includes the Pre-Illinoian B glaciation of North America.<ref name="GibbardOthers2007"/><ref name="RichmondOther1"/>

==Kansan glacial==

Kansan glacial spans 500,000-600,000 yr BP.<ref name=VanLandingham/>

MIS Boundary 14/15 is at 563 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 13/14 is at 533 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Aftonian interglacial==
[[Image:Pre-Illinoisian sections.png|right|thumb|300px|Examples of pre–Illinoian stratigraphic sections are shown. Credit: M. Roy, P.U. Clark, R.W. Barendregt, J.R. Glasmann, and R.J. Enkin.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Aftonian interglacial spans ca. 600,000-650,000 yr BP.<ref name=VanLandingham/>

"N tills [...] show the greatest amount of feldspar and carbonate minerals in the silt fraction. This group includes at least one till unit overlain by the 0.6 Ma Lava Creek ash, thus suggesting that some of these units were deposited between 0.8 and 0.6 Ma, but also later, as indicated by two sites with a till overlying the 0.6 Ma ash (Boellstorff, 1973). The N till group is considered to include the A1, A2, and A3 tills of Boellstorff (1973, 1978b)."<ref name=Roy/>

Lava Creek B ash is dated at 602 ka.<ref name=Roy>{{ cite journal
|author=M. Roy
|author2=P.U. Clark
|author3=R.W. Barendregt
|author4=J.R. Glasmann
|author5=R.J. Enkin
|title=Glacial stratigraphy and paleomagnetism of late Cenozoic deposits of the north-central United States
|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin
|month=January/February
|year=2004
|volume=116
|issue=1/2
|pages=30-41
|url=http://geo.oregonstate.edu/files/geo/Royetal-GSAB-2004.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1130/B25325.1
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-06-11 }}</ref>

MIS Boundary 15/16 is at 621 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

The Yellowstone Lava Creek B ash is dated at 639 ± 2 ka ka.<ref name=Darling>{{ cite journal
|author=Andrew L. Darling
|author2=Karl E. Karlstrom
|author3=Andres Aslan
|author4=Rex Cole
|author5=Charles Betton
|author6=Elmira Wan
|title=Quaternary incision rates and drainage evolution of the Uncompahgre and Gunnison Rivers, western Colorado, as calibrated by the Lava Creek B ash
|journal=Rocky Mountain Geology
|month=May
|year=2009
|volume=44
|issue=1
|pages=71–83
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrew_Darling/publication/250085188_Quaternary_incision_rates_and_drainage_evolution_of_the_Uncompahgre_and_Gunnison_Rivers_western_Colorado_as_calibrated_by_the_Lava_Creek_B_ash/links/5580978b08ae607ddc3226ca.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1130/B25325.1
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-06-11 }}</ref>

"The Lava Creek B ash bed (0.64 Ma) originated from one of several Yellowstone Plateau plinian eruptions that produced extensive ashfall over much of the west-central United States (Izett and Wilcox, 1982)."<ref name=Darling/>

"The second, and geochemically analyzed, occurrence of Lava Creek B ash is in Kelso Gulch, along sloping hillsides slightly above the valley floor (Fig. 2). The tephra layer intermittently follows the contour of the hillslope at an elevation of 1,591 m. It is variably cemented with calcite and up to 5 cm thick. At this locality, geochemical confirmation of the Lava Creek B ash by co-author Wan (Table 1) comes from sample K06CO3, collected from an indurated, ca. 5-cm-thick ash bed exposed on a hillside (Fig. 2). This ash bed is thinly mantled by slope-wash."<ref name=Darling/>

"Processing, petrographic analysis, and geochemical fingerprinting of tephra sample K06CO3 and its identification as the Lava Creek B ash was performed at the USGS Tephrochronology Laboratory and the Electron Microprobe Laboratory in Menlo Park, California."<ref name=Darling/>

"Examples of pre–Illinoian sections [are in the images on the right]. (A) Two till units with paleosols separated by nonglacial silt and clay unit at site 19 (blow-up of units to left). (B) Lava Creek B ash (0.602 Ma) cropping out near site 4. (C) Two-till unit sequence capped by loess deposits at site 15. Lower till is truncated by sand and gravel unit whereas upper till is affected by paleosol development. Sandy diamicton is present between lower till and bedrock."<ref name=Roy/>
{{clear}}

==Chibanian==

The Chibanin ends with the onset of the Eemian interglacial period (Marine Isotope Stage 5).<ref name="Eemian">{{Cite journal |title=Eemian interglacial reconstructed from a Greenland folded ice core |journal=Nature |volume=493 |issue=7433 |pages=489–494 |year=2013 |author=D. Dahl-Jensen & others |bibcode=2013Natur.493..489N |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/500331/1/2012-07-09846-NEEM_revised.pdf |doi=10.1038/nature11789 |pmid=23344358|s2cid=4420908 }}</ref>

The beginning of the Chibanian is the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal, when the Earth's magnetic field last underwent reversal.<ref>{{cite book |editor2-last=Ogg |editor2-first=James G. |editor3-last=Smith |editor3-first=Alan G. |editor-last=Gradstein |editor-first=Felix M. |title=A Geological Time Scale 2004 |url=https://archive.org/details/geologictimescal2004grad |url-access=limited |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521786737 |page=[https://archive.org/details/geologictimescal2004grad/page/n49 28] |edition=3rd}}</ref>

==Nebraskan glacial==

Nebraskan glacial spans ca. 650,000-1,000,000 yr BP.<ref name=VanLandingham/>

The magnetic field reversal to the present geomagnetic poles (Brunhes chron) occurred at 780,000 yr BP.

"The R1-till group includes two till units that overlie the 1.3 Ma Mesa Falls ash, thus indicating at least two glaciations between 1.3 Ma and 0.8 Ma."<ref name=Roy/>

The magnetic field reversal to the opposite geomagnetic poles (subchron) occurred at 900,000 yr BP.

MIS Boundary 27/28 is at 982 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 26/27 is at 970 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 25/26 is at 959 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 24/25 is at 936 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 23/24 is at 917 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 22/23 is at 900 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 21/22 is at 866 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 20/21 is at 814 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 19/20 is at 790 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 18/19 is at 761 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 17/18 is at 712 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 16/17 is at 676 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

==Early Pleistocene==

Early Pleistocene spans ca. 730,000-1,600,000 yr BP.<ref name=VanLandingham/>

Mesa Falls ash is dated at 1293 ka.<ref name=Roy/>

==Castlecliffian==

The Castlecliffian began 1.63 Ma and last until 0.34 Ma.

==Calabrian==
[[Image:Calabrian base GSSP.png|thumb|center|400px|Lithologic and magnetostratigraphic correlations are for the Calabrian GSSP. Credit: Maria Bianca Cita, Philip L. Gibbard, Martin J. Head, and the ICS Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy.]]
[[Image:Calabrian base GSSP at e.png|right|thumb|250px|The Vrica section and surrounding area includes specifically the GSSP of the Calabrian Stage fixed at the top of layer ‘e’. Credit: Maria Bianca Cita, ''et al''.]]
The magnetic field reversal to the present geomagnetic poles (Jaramillo subchron) occurred at 1,060,000 yr BP.

The magnetic field reversal to the opposite, back to the present, then opposite geomagnetic poles (Cobb Mountain subchron) occurred at 1,190,000 yr BP.

The magnetic field reversal to the opposite geomagnetic poles (Olduvai subchron) occurred at 1,780,000 yr BP.

"The [Calabrian] GSSP occurs at the base of the marine claystone conformably overlying sapropelic bed ‘e’ within Segment B in the Vrica section. This lithological level represents the primary marker for the recognition of the boundary, and is assigned an astronomical age of 1.80 Ma on the basis of sapropel calibration."<ref name=Cita>{{ cite journal
|author=Maria Bianca Cita
|author2=Philip L. Gibbard
|author3=Martin J. Head
|author4=the ICS Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy
|title=Formal ratification of the GSSP for the base of the Calabrian Stage (second stage of the Pleistocene Series, Quaternary System)
|journal=Episodes
|month=September
|year=2012
|volume=35
|issue=3
|pages=388-97
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Calabrian2.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-01-18 }}</ref>

MIS Boundary 63/64 is at 1782 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 62/63 is at 1758 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 61/62 is at 1743 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 60/61 is at 1715 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 59/60 is at 1697.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 58/59 is at 1670 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 57/58 is at 1642.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 56/57 is at 1628.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

In the image on the right, the Vrica section includes specifically the GSSP of the Calabrian Stage fixed at the top of layer 'e'.
{{clear}}

==Antian==

The Antian began ~2.12 Ma and ended ~2.0 Ma.

==Bramertonian==

The Bramertonian Stage is the name for an early Pleistocene biostratigraphic stage in the British Isles that precedes the Pre-Pastonian Stage (Baventian Stage), derives its name from Bramerton Pits in Norfolk, where the deposits can be found on the surface, but the exact timing of the beginning and end of the Bramertonian Stage is currently unknown, it is equivalent to the Tiglian C1-4b Stage of Europe and early Pre-Illinoian Stage of North America, and lies somewhere in time between Marine Oxygen Isotope stages 65 to 95 and somewhere between 1.816 and 2.427 Ma.<ref name="McMillan11"/><ref name="GibbardOthers2007"/><ref name="Lisiecki2005"/><ref name="LisieckiRaymo"/> The Bramertonian is correlated with the Antian stage identified from pollen assemblages in the Ludham borehole.<ref name="West_1962">West, RG (1962). ''Vegetational history of the Early Pleistocene of the Royal Society Borehole at Ludham, Norfolk''. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B155, pp.437-453</ref><ref name="Gibbardetal_1998">Gibbard, PL, Zalasiewicz, JA & Mathers, SJ (1998). ''Stratigraphy of the marine Plio-Pleistocene crag deposits of East Anglia''. In: van Kolfschoten, T & Gibbard, PL (eds). ''The Dawn of the Quaternary - proceedings of the SEQS-EuroMam Symposium : Kerkrade, 16-21 June 1996''. Netherlands Institute of Applied Geoscience, 1998. isbn:9072869613 }}</ref>

==Gelasian==
[[Image:Gelasian base GSSP.png|thumb|right|250px|The base of the marly layer overlying sapropel MPRS 250, located at 62 m in the Monte San Nicola section, is the defined base of the Gelasian Stage. Credit: D. Rio, R. Sprovieri, D. Castradori, and E. Di Stefano.]]
Some number of N tills occurred during the Olduvai subchron.<ref name=Roy/>

The magnetic field reversal to the present geomagnetic poles (Olduvai subchron) occurred at 2,000,000 yr BP.

The oldest till group, R2 tills, consists of till units with a reversed polarity and >77% of sedimentary clasts. Low amounts of expandable clays, substantial amounts of kaolinite, and the absence of chlorite characterize the clay mineralogy of R2 tills. The mineralogy of the silt fraction of R2 tills is rich in quartz and depleted in calcite, dolomite, and feldspar. This till group includes a till unit that underlies the 2.0-Ma Huckleberry Ridge ash, thus indicating deposition sometime between ~2.5 Ma (onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciations) (Mix et al., 1995) and 2.0 Ma.<ref name=Roy/>

The magnetic field reversal to the present geomagnetic poles (Reunion subchron) and back occurred at 2,080,000 yr BP.

The magnetic field reversal to the present geomagnetic poles (Reunion subchron) and back occurred at 2,140,000 yr BP.

"The base of the Quaternary System [shown in the image on the right] is defined by the Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Gelasian Stage at Monte San Nicola in Sicily, Italy, currently dated at 2.58 Ma."<ref name=Gibbard2010>{{ cite journal
|author=Philip L. Gibbard
|author2=Martin J. Head
|title=The newly-ratified definition of the Quaternary System/Period and redefinition of the Pleistocene Series/Epoch, and comparison of proposals advanced prior to formal ratification
|journal=Episodes
|month=September
|year=2010
|volume=33
|issue=3
|pages=152-8
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Quaternary&Pleistocene.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-01-20 }}</ref>

"The astrochronological age of sapropel MPRS 250 (mid-point), corresponding to precessional cycle 250 from the present, is 2.588 Ma (Lourens et al., 1996), which can be assumed as the age of the boundary."<ref name=Rio>{{ cite journal
|author=D. Rio
|author2=R. Sprovieri
|author3=D. Castradori
|author4=E. Di Stefano
|title=The Gelasian Stage (Upper Pliocene): A new unit of the global standard chronostratigraphic scale
|journal=Episodes
|month=June
|year=1998
|volume=21
|issue=2
|pages=82-7
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Gelasian.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-01-20 }}</ref>

MIS Boundary 102/103 is at 2575 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 101/102 is at 2554 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 100/101 is at 2540 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 99/100 is at 2510 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 98/99 is at 2494 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 97/98 is at 2477 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 96/97 is at 2452 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 95/96 is at 2427 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 94/95 is at 2407 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 93/94 is at 2387 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 92/93 is at 2373 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 91/92 is at 2350 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 90/91 is at 2333 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 89/90 is at 2309 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 88/89 is at 2291 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 87/88 is at 2273 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 86/87 is at 2250 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 85/86 is at 2236 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 84/85 is at 2207.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 83/84 is at 2192 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 82/83 is at 2168 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 81/82 is at 2146 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 80/81 is at 2125 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 79/80 is at 2103 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 78/79 is at 2088 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 77/78 is at 2043 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 76/77 is at 2017 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

Huckleberry Ridge ash is dated at 2003 ka.<ref name=Roy/>

MIS Boundary 75/76 is at 1990 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 74/75 is at 1965 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 73/74 is at 1941 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 72/73 is at 1915 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 71/72 is at 1898 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 70/71 is at 1875 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 69/70 is at 1859.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 68/69 is at 1849 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 67/68 is at 1832.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 66/67 is at 1826 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 65/66 is at 1816 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 64/65 is at 1802.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>
{{clear}}

==Amstelian==

The Amstelian began 2.588 Ma and ended 2.40 Ma.

==Aquatraversian==

The Aquatraversian began 2.588 Ma and ended 2.4 Ma.

==Mangapanian==

The Mangapanian began 3.00 Ma and ended 2.40 Ma.

==Nukumaruan==

The Nukumaruan began 3.1 Ma and ended 1.8 Ma.

==Tertiary==

The Tertiary Period extends from 65.5 ± 0.3 to 2.588 x 10<sup>6</sup> b2k.

==Neogene==

The Neogene dates from 23.03 x 10<sup>6</sup> to 2.58 x 10<sup>6</sup> b2k.

==Pliocene==

The Pliocene ranges from 5.332 x 10<sup>6</sup> to 2.588 x 10<sup>6</sup> b2k.

"The base of the Quaternary System is defined by the Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Gelasian Stage at Monte San Nicola in Sicily, Italy, currently dated at 2.58 Ma."<ref name=Gibbard/>

==Piacenzian==
[[Image:Piacenzian base GSSP.png|thumb|right|250px|Chronology of the Rossello composite section is based on the correlation of small-scale carbonate cycle patterns to precession and insolation curves. Credit: D. Castradori, D. Rio, F. J. Hilgen, and L. J. Lourens.]]
The magnetic field reversal to the present geomagnetic poles (Matuyama chron) occurred at 2,590,000 yr BP.

MIS Boundary MG12/Gi1 is at 3592 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG11/MG12 is at 3578 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG10/MG11 is at 3566 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG9/MG10 is at 3546 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG8/MG9 is at 3532 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG7/MG8 is at 3517 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG6/MG7 is at 3471 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG5/MG6 is at 3444 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG4/MG5 is at 3387 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG3/MG4 is at 3372 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG2/MG3 is at 3347 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary MG1/MG2 is at 3332 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary M2/MG1 is at 3312 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary M1/M2 is at 3264 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary KM6/M1 is at 3238 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary KM5/KM6 is at 3212 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary KM4/KM5 is at 3184 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary KM3/KM4 is at 3167 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary KM2/KM3 is at 3150 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary KM1/KM2 is at 3119 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary K2/KM1 is at 3097 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary K1/K2 is at 3087 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G22/K1 is at 3055 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G21/G22 is at 3039 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G20/6G21 is at 3025 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G19/G20 is at 2999 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G18/G19 is at 2982.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G17/G18 is at 2966 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G16/G17 is at 2937 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G15/G16 is at 2913 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G14/G15 is at 2893 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G13/G14 is at 2876 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G12/G13 is at 2858 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G11/G12 is at 2838 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G10/G11 is at 2820 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G9/G10 is at 2798 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G8/G9 is at 2777 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G7/G8 is at 2759 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G6/G7 is at 2730 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G5/G6 is at 2704 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G4/G5 is at 2690 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G3/G4 is at 2681 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G2/G3 is at 2652 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary G1/G2 is at 2638 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 104/G1 is at 2614 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary 103/105 is at 2595 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

"The base of the beige marl bed of the small-scale carbonate cycle 77 (''sensu'' Hilgen, 1991b) is the approved base of the Piacenzian Stage (that is the Lower Pliocene-Middle Pliocene boundary). It corresponds to precessional excursion 347 as numbered from the present with an astrochronological age estimate of 3.600 Ma (Lourens ''et al''., 1996a)."<ref name=Castradori>{{ cite journal
|author=D. Castradori
|author2=D. Rio
|author3=F. J. Hilgen
|author4=L. J. Lourens
|title=The Global Standard Stratotype-section and Point (GSSP) of the Piacenzian Stage (Middle Pliocene)
|journal=Episodes
|month=June
|year=1998
|volume=21
|issue=2
|pages=88-93
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Piacenzian.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-01-23 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Waipipian==

The Waipipian began 3.60 Ma and lasted to 3.00 Ma.

==Opoitian==

The Opoitian began 5.0 Ma and ended 3.8 Ma.

==Wanganui==

The Wanganui epoch began 5.33-5.28 Ma and extends into the present.

==Zanclean==
[[Image:Zanclean base GSSP.png|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Eraclea Minoa section has the GSSP of the Zanclean Stage and of the Pliocene Series. Credit: John A. Van Couvering, Davide Castradori, Maria Bianca Cita, Frederik J. Hilgen, and Domenico Rio.]]
"The boundary-stratotype of the stage is located in the Eraclea Minoa section on the southern coast of Sicily (Italy), at the base of the Trubi Formation. The age of the Zanclean and Pliocene GSSP at the base of the stage is 5.33 Ma in the orbitally calibrated time scale, and lies within the lowermost reversed episode of the Gilbert Chron (C3n.4r), below the Thvera normal subchron."<ref name=Couvering>{{ cite journal
|author=John A. Van Couvering
|author2=Davide Castradori
|author3=Maria Bianca Cita
|author4=Frederik J. Hilgen
|author5=Domenico Rio
|title=The base of the Zanclean Stage and of the
Pliocene Series
|journal=Episodes
|month=September
|year=2000
|volume=23
|issue=3
|pages=179-87
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Zanclean.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-01-23 }}</ref>

In the chronostratigraphic correlation in the [[Geochronology#Piacenzian|Piacenzian]] section, the base of the Zanclean is marked as the '0' point.

MIS Boundary TG5/TG6 is at 5315 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary TG4/TG5 is at 5301 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary TG3/TG4 is at 5289 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary TG2/TG3 is at 5266 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary TG1/TG2 is at 5241 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary T8/TG1 is at 5188 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary T7/T8 is at 5165 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary T6/T7 is at 5116 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary T5/T6 is at 5094 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary T4/T5 is at 5070 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary T3/T4 is at 5038 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary T2/T3 is at 5016 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary T1/T2 is at 5002 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary ST4/T1 is at 4985 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary ST3/ST4 is at 4976 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary ST2/ST3 is at 4952.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary ST1/ST2 is at 4931 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Si6/ST1 is at 4904 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Si5/Si6 is at 4883 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Si4/Si5 is at 4860 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Si3/Si4 is at 4840 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Si2/Si3 is at 4821 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Si1/Si2 is at 4807 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary NS6/Si1 is at 4778 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary NS5/NS6 is at 4766 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary NS4/NS5 is at 4737 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary NS3/NS4 is at 4722.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary NS2/NS3 is at 4702.5 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary NS1/NS2 is at 4684 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N10/NS1 is at 4658 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N9/N10 is at 4648 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N8/N9 is at 4622 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N7/N8 is at 4603 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N6/N7 is at 45887 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N5/N6 is at 4570 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N4/N5 is at 4538 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N3/N4 is at 4523 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N2/N3 is at 4508 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary N1/N2 is at 4487 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary CN8/N1 is at 4457 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary CN7/CN8 is at 4446 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary CN6/CN7 is at 4420 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary CN5/CN6 is at 4395 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary CN4/CN5 is at 4371 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary CN3/CN4 is at 4356 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary CN2/CN3 is at 4335 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary CN1/CN2 is at 4327 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Co4/CN1 is at 4303 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Co3/Co4 is at 4286 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Co2/Co3 is at 4259 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Co1/Co2 is at 4232 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi28/Co1 is at 4211 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi27/Gi28 is at 4192 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi26/Gi27 is at 4175 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi25/Gi26 is at 4146 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi24/Gi25 is at 4098 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi23/Gi24 is at 4085 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi22/Gi23 is at 4048 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi21/Gi22 is at 4029 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi20/Gi21 is at 4007 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi19/Gi20 is at 3978 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi18/Gi19 is at 3952 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi17/Gi18 is at 3939 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi16/Gi17 is at 3923 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi15/Gi16 is at 3912 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi14/Gi15 is at 3879 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi13/Gi14 is at 3862 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi12/Gi13 is at 3835 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi11/Gi12 is at 3822 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi10/Gi11 is at 3798 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi9/Gi10 is at 3768 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi8/Gi9 is at 3752 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi7/Gi8 is at 3742 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi6/Gi7 is at 3719 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi5/Gi6 is at 3705 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi4/Gi5 is at 3676 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi3/Gi4 is at 3660 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi2/Gi3 is at 3637 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>

MIS Boundary Gi1/Gi2 is at 3619 ka.<ref name="Lisiecki2005">Lisiecki, L.E., 2005, [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt ''Ages of MIS boundaries.''] [http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/stack.html LR04 Benthic Stack] Boston University, Boston, MA</ref>
{{clear}}

==Kapitean==

The Kapitean began 6.5 Ma and ended 5.0 Ma.

==Miocene==

The Miocene dates from 23.03 x 10<sup>6</sup> to 5.332 x 10<sup>6</sup> b2k.

==Messinian==
[[Image:Messinian GSSP.png|right|thumb|300px|Photograph of section Oued Akrech, shows sedimentary cycles OA 1–7 and the position of the Tortonian-Messinian boundary at the base of a reddish bed of cycle OA-15. Credit: F.J. Hilgen, S. Iaccarino, W. Krijgsman, G. Villa, C.G. Langereis, and W.J. Zachariasse.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:Integrated magnetostratigraphy, calcareous plankton biostratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy of section Oued Akrech.png|left|thumb|400px|Integrated magnetostratigraphy, calcareous plankton biostratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy of section Oued Akrech is diagrammed. Credit: F.J. Hilgen, S. Iaccarino, W. Krijgsman, G. Villa, C.G. Langereis, and W.J. Zachariasse.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
"The GSSP of the Messinian Stage, which per definition marks the base of the Messinian and, hence, the boundary between the Tortonian and Messinian Stages of the Upper Miocene Subseries, is Oued Akrech (Morocco) where the Messinian GSSP is now formally designated at the base of the reddish layer of sedimentary cycle no. 15. This point coincides closely with the first regular occurrence (FRO) of the planktonic foraminiferal ''Globorotalia miotumida'' group and the first occurrence (FO) of the calcareous nannofossil ''Amaurolithus delicatus'', and falls within the interval of reversed polarity that corresponds to C3Br.1r. The base of the reddish layer and, thus, the Messinian GSSP has been assigned an astronomical age of 7.251 Ma."<ref name=Hilgen>{{ cite journal
|author=F.J. Hilgen
|author2=S. Iaccarino
|author3=W. Krijgsman
|author4=G. Villa
|author5=C.G. Langereis
|author6=
|author7=W.J. Zachariasse
|title=The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Messinian Stage (uppermost Miocene)
|journal=Episodes
|date= 2000
|volume=23
|issue=3
|pages=172-178
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Messinian.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-08-20 }}</ref>

"The correlation of characteristic sedimentary cycle patterns to the astronomical record resulted in an astronomical age of 7.24 Ma (Hilgen et al., 1995), in good agreement with the radiometric age estimates of Vai et al. (1993) and Laurenzi et al. (1997)."<ref name=Hilgen/>

The integrated magnetostratigraphy, calcareous plankton biostratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy of section Oued Akrech is diagrammed on the left.
{{clear}}

==Taranaki==

The Taranaki began 10.9 Ma and ended 5.28 Ma in New Zealand.

==Tortonian==

The Tortonian lasted from 11.63 Ma to 7.246 Ma.
{{clear}}

==Middle Miocene==

The sub-epoch lasted from 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma to 11.608 ± 0.005 Ma (million years ago). During this period, a sharp drop in global temperatures took place. This event is known as the Middle Miocene Climate Transition.

==Serravallian==

The Serravallian is in the middle Miocene and spans the time between 13.82 Ma and 11.63 Ma (million years ago), follows the Langhian and is followed by the Tortonian.<ref name=Gradstein>{{ cite journal
|author=Felix M. Gradstein
|author2=Frits P. Agterberg
|author3=James G. Ogg
|author4=Jan Hardenbol
|author5=Paul Van Veen
|author6=Jacques Thierry
|author7=Zehui Huang
|title=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale, In: ''Geochronology Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation''
|volume=SEPM Special Publication No. 54
|publisher=Society for Sedimentary Geology
|location=
|month=
|year=1995
|editor=
|issue=
|pages=
|url=http://archives.datapages.com/data/sepm_sp/SP54/A_Triassic_Jurassic_and_Cretaceous_Time_Scale.htm
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=1-56576-024-7
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2016-10-24 }}</ref>

==Bairnsdalian==

The Bairnsdalian began 15.0 Ma and ended 10.5 Ma.

==Lillburnian==

The Lillburnian began 15.1 Ma and ended 12.7 Ma.

==Clifdenian==

The Clifdenian began 15.9 Ma and lasted to 15.1 Ma.

==Southland==

The Southland began 15.9 Ma and lasted to 10.9 Ma.

==Langhian==

The Langhian is, in the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) geologic timescale, an age or stage in the middle Miocene series, spanning the time between 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma and 13.65 ± 0.05 Ma.<ref name = geowhen>GeoWhen (2007)</ref>

The Langhian was a continuing warming period.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-05-01
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620072033/http://www.geology.fau.edu/people/petuch.html |archive-date=2010-06-20 }}, Edward Petuch, Cenozoic Seas: The View From Eastern North America. isbn 0-8493-1632-4}}</ref> defined by Lorenzo Pareto in 1865, it was originally established in the Langhe area north of Ceva in northern Italy, hence the name. The Langhian is preceded by the Burdigalian and followed by the Serravallian stage.

==Astaracian==

The Astaracian age is a period of geologic time (16.0-11.6 Ma), equivalent with the Middle Miocene and used more specifically with European Land Mammal Ages, precedes the Vallesian age and follows the Orleanian age, and overlaps the Langhian and Serravallian ages.<ref>[http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=displayInterval&interval_no=292 Paleo Database: Astaracian]</ref>

==Badenian==

The Badenian began 16.3 Ma and ended 12.8 Ma.<ref name=Hohenegger>{{cite journal
|last1=Hohenegger
|first1=Johann
|last2=Ćorić
|first2=Stjepan
|last3=Wagreich
|first3=Michael
|title=Timing of the Middle Miocene Badenian Stage of the Central Paratethys
|journal=Geologica Carpathica
|date=2014
|volume=65
|issue=1
|doi=10.2478/geoca-2014-0004
|url=http://geologie.univie.ac.at/uploads/media/Hohenegger.etal.Badenian.age.2014.GC_1_.pdf
}}</ref>

==Antwerpian==

"The deposits indicated with the stage Antwerpian are nowadays called the Berchem Formation, which is subdivided in the Edegem Sands, Kiel Sands and Antwerpen Sands members (De Meuter & Laga, 1976). Recent micropalaeontological studies revealed the presence of a well-preserved dinoflagellate assemblage: a (latest Aquitanian?) Burdigalian to middle Serravallian age is attributed to the Berchem Formation (Louwye et al., 2000)."<ref name=Laga>{{ cite journal
|author=Pieter Laga & Stephen Louwye
|title=Disused Neogene and Quaternary regional stages from Belgium: Bolderian, Houthalenian, Antwerpian, Diestian, Deurnian, Kasterlian, Kattendijkian, Scaldisian, Poederlian, Merksemian and Flandrian
|journal=Geologica Belgica
|date=2006
|volume=9
|issue=1-2
|pages=215-224
|url=https://popups.uliege.be/1374-8505/index.php?id=1226&file=1&pid=1220
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=19 October 2021 }}</ref>

"De Heinzelin (1955) suggested a late Middle Miocene age for the Antwerpian and an early Middle Miocene age for the Bolderian (= “Houthaléen”)."<ref name=Laga/>

"The new Sr-dating of dinoflagellate cyst bioevents [...] allows to constrain the age of the Edegem Member [Houthalen Member] between 19 Ma and 18.4 Ma (early Burdigalian)."<ref name=Louwye/>

==Orleanian==

The Orleanian age is a period of geologic time, MN (Mammal Neogene) zonation (MN) 3–5, 20.0 - 16.0 Ma, within the Miocene and used more specifically with European Land Mammal Ages, preceding the Astaracian age and follows the Agenian age.<ref>[http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=displayInterval&interval_no=293 Paleo Database: Orleanian]</ref>

==Awamoan==

The Awamoan began 20.0 Ma and ended at 17.5 Ma, occurred during the Miocene of New Zealand.

==Burdigalian==

The Burdigalian is, in the geologic timescale, an age or stage in the early Miocene that spans the time  between 20.43 ± 0.05 Ma and 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma, preceded by the Aquitanian, the Burdigalian was the first and longest warming period of the Miocene<ref name=Petuch>{{cite web
|author=Edward Petuch
|title=Edward Petuch
|accessdate=2010-05-01
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620072033/http://www.geology.fau.edu/people/petuch.html |archive-date=2010-06-20 }}</ref> and is succeeded by the Langhian.

==Otaian==

The Otaian began 21.7 Ma and ended 19.1 Ma.

==Pareora==

The Pareora began 21.7 Ma and ended 15.9 Ma.

==Bolderian==

The Elsloo gravel dates from 23.03 Ma to 19 Ma of the Houthalen Member based on the presence of reworked fossils and the Houthalen Member above. "As is the case for the Edegem Member, the Kiel Member contains glauconite which, based on radiometric dating and grain-size distribution curves, are presumed to be reworked (Odin et al., 1974; Vandenberghe et al., 2014; Adriaens, 2015). The radiometric datings further show divergence between K-Ar ages (23 to 25.3 Ma; Chattian) and Rb-Sr ages (30 Ma; Rupelian) (Odin & Kreuzer, 1988)."<ref name=Louwye>{{ cite journal
|author=Stephen Louwye, Jef Deckers, Jasper Verhaegen, Rieko Adriaens & Noël Vandenberghe
|title=A review of the lower and middle Miocene of northern Belgium
|journal=Geologica Belgica
|date=2020
|volume=23
|issue=3-4
|pages=137-156
|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8694505/file/8694508
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=19 October 2021 }}</ref>

==Aquitanian==

The Aquitanian is, in the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) geologic timescale, the oldest age or lowest stage in the Miocene, that spans the time between 23.03 ± 0.05 Ma and 20.43 ± 0.05 Ma during the Early Miocene, a dry, cooling period.<ref name=Petuch/>

==Paleogene==

The Paleogene Period extends from 65.5 ± 0.3 to 23.03 ± 0.05 x 10<sup>6</sup> b2k.<ref name=Rohde>{{ cite book
|author=Robert A. Rohde
|title=Paleogene Period
|publisher=GeoWhen Database
|location=
|date=18 January 2005
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/bak/geowhen/stages/Paleogene.html
|accessdate=2015-09-16 }}</ref>

==Agenian==

The Agenian age is a period of geologic time (23.8–20 Ma) within the Miocene used more specifically with European Land Mammal Ages, and follows the Orleanian age and overlaps the Aquitanian and Burdigalian ages.<ref>[http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=displayInterval&interval_no=294 Paleo Database: Aegnian]</ref>

==Oligocene==

The Oligocene dates from 33.9 ± 0.1 x 10<sup>6</sup> to 23.03 x 10<sup>6</sup> b2k.

==Waitakian==

The Waitakian began 25.2 Ma and ended 21.7 Ma.

==Duntroonian==

The Duntroonian began 27.3 Ma and ended 25.2 Ma.

==Chattian==

The Chattian began 27.82 Ma and ended 23.03 Ma.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
|title=ICS - Chart/Time Scale
|website=www.stratigraphy.org }}</ref>

During the Chattian the largest known single-event volcanic eruption occurred: the Fish Canyon Tuff (Fish Canyon eruption) of the La Garita Caldera with a magnitude of 9.2 and VEI of 8.<ref name="Mason2004">Mason, B.G.; Pyle, D.M. & Oppenheimer, C.; '''2004''': ''The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth'', Bulletin of Volcanology '''66'''(8), pp 735–748.</ref>

It has been dated to {{val|27.51|u=Ma}} ago.<ref>Lanphere, M.A. & Baadsgaard, H.; '''2001''': ''Precise K–Ar, <sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar, Rb–Sr and U/Pb mineral ages from the 27.5 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff reference standard'', Chemical Geology '''175'''(3–4), pp 653–671.</ref>

==Avernian==

The Avernian began 29.2 Ma and ended 23.03 Ma.

==Arikareean==

The Arikareean North American Stage on the geologic timescale is the North American faunal stage according to the North American Land Mammal Ages chronology (NALMA), typically set from 30,600,000 to 20,800,000 years BP, a period of 30.6-20.8 Ma.<ref>[http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=displayInterval&interval_no=224 Paleobiology Database]</ref> It is usually considered to overlap the Oligocene and Miocene epochs. The Arikareean is preceded by the Whitneyan and followed by the Hemingfordian NALMA stages.

The Arikareean can be further divided into the substages of: 
*late Late Arikareean: Lower boundary source, base of Geringian (approximate)<ref>[http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=displayInterval&interval_no=254 Paleobiology Database Late Arikareean]</ref>
*early Late Arikareean: base of Geringian (approximate). Upper boundary source: base of Hemingfordian (approximate).
*late Early Arikareean: Lower boundary source of base of Geringian (approximate). Upper boundary source of base of Hemingfordian (approximate).
*early Early Arikareean (shares lower boundary): Upper boundary source of base of Hemingfordian (approximate).

==Rupelian==

The Rupelian began 33.9 Ma and ended 27.82 Ma.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
|title=ICS - Chart/Time Scale
|website=www.stratigraphy.org }}</ref>

==Eocene==

The Eocene dates from 55.8 ± 0.2 x 10<sup>6</sup> to  33.9 ± 0.1 x 10<sup>6</sup> b2k.

The Eocene is conventionally divided into early (56–47.8&nbsp;million years ago), middle (47.8–38m), and late (38–33.9m) subdivisions.<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/science/Eocene-Epoch</ref> The corresponding rocks are referred to as lower, middle, and upper Eocene. The Ypresian Stage constitutes the lower, the Priabonian Stage the upper; and the Lutetian and Bartonian Stages are united as the middle Eocene.

==Whaingaroan==

The Whaingaroan began 34.3 Ma and ended 27.3 Ma.

==Landon==

The Landon began 34.3 Ma and ended 21.7 Ma.

==Refugian==

The Refugian began 35.0 Ma and ended 33.5 Ma.

==Aldingan==

The Aldingan began 36 Ma and ended 30 Ma.

==Runangan==

The Runangan began 36.0 Ma and ended 34.3 Ma.

==Jacksonian==
[[Image:Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippian and Alabama stratigraphic column.png|thumb|right|300px|Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippian and Alabama stratigraphic columns show the location of the Jacksonian Formation. Credit: Richard B. Powers.]]
"Por primera vez en la Cuenca de Burgos se utilizan isótopos {{chem|87|Sr}}/{{chem|86|Sr}} para obtener una edad geocronológica de 36.75 (+2.65/-2.05) Ma, para la Formación Jackson inferior."<ref name=Eguiluz/> In English, "For the first time in the Burgos Basin, {{chem|87|Sr}}/{{chem|86|Sr}} isotopes are used to obtain a geochronological age of <math>36.75^{+ 2.65}_{-2.05}</math> Ma, for the lower Jackson Formation."<ref name=Eguiluz/>
{{clear}}

==Priabonian==

The Priabonian began 37.8 Ma and ended 33.9 Ma.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
|title=ICS - Chart/Time Scale
|website=www.stratigraphy.org }}</ref>

==Bartonian==

The Bartonian began 41.2 Ma and ended 37.8 Ma.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
|title=ICS - Chart/Time Scale
|website=www.stratigraphy.org }}</ref>

==Bortonian==

The Bortonian began 43.0 Ma and ended 37.0 Ma.

==Arnold==

The Arnold Epoch began 43.0 Ma and ended 34.3 Ma.

==Porangan==

The Porangan began 46.2 Ma and ended 43.0 Ma.

==Lutetian==

The Lutetian began 47.8 Ma and ended 41.2 Ma.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
|title=ICS - Chart/Time Scale
|website=www.stratigraphy.org }}</ref>

==Johannian==

The Johannian began 48 Ma and ended 35 Ma.

==Nanzian==

The Nanzian began 48 Ma and ended 35 Ma.

==Arshantan==

The Arshantan age is a period of geologic time (48.6–37.2 Ma) within the Early Eocene epoch of the Paleogene used more specifically with Asian Land Mammal Ages, following the Bumbanian age and preceding the Irdinmanhan age, where the upper boundary layer of the Arshantan can be the lower boundary of the Priabonian<ref>[http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=displayInterval&interval_no=1005 Paleo Database: Arshantan]</ref>

==Mangaorapan==

The Mangaorapan began 53.0 Ma and ended 49.5 Ma.

==Waipawan==

The Waipawan began 55.5 Ma and ended 53.0 Ma.

==Ypresian==

The Ypresian began 56.0 Ma and ended 47.8 Ma.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
|title=ICS - Chart/Time Scale
|website=www.stratigraphy.org }}</ref>

==Paleocene==

The Paleocene dates from 65.5 ± 0.3 x 10<sup>6</sup> to 55.8 ± 0.2 x 10<sup>6</sup> b2k.

==Thanetian==

The Thanetian began 59.2 Ma and ended 56.0 Ma.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
|title=ICS - Chart/Time Scale
|website=www.stratigraphy.org
}}</ref>

==Selandian==

The Selandian began 61.6 Ma and ended at 59.2 Ma.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
|title=ICS - Chart/Time Scale
|website=www.stratigraphy.org }}</ref>

==Dannevirke==

The Dannevirke began 65.0 Ma and ended 43.0 Ma.

==Teurian==

The Teurian began 65.0 Ma or 65.5 Ma and ended 55.5 Ma.

==Danian==
[[Image:Danian base GSSP.png|thumb|center|400px|The figure shows the integrated stratigraphy across the K/Pg boundary in the El Kef section. Credit: Eustoquio Molina, Laia Alegret, Ignacio Arenillas, José A. Arz, Njoud Gallala, Jan Hardenbol, Katharina von Salis, Etienne Steurbaut, Noël Vandenberghe, and Dalila Zaghbib-Turki.]]
[[Image:Closeup of K-Pg boundary.png|thumb|right|250px|This image is a detail of the K/Pg boundary with a Tunisian coin as scale on the rusty layer. Credit: Eustoquio Molina, Laia Alegret, Ignacio Arenillas, José A. Arz, Njoud Gallala, Jan Hardenbol, Katharina von Salis, Etienne Steurbaut, Noël Vandenberghe, and Dalila Zaghbib-Turki.]]
The Danian is the oldest age or lowest stage of the Paleocene Epoch or Series, of the Paleogene Period or System, and of the Cenozoic Era or Erathem: the beginning of the Danian Age (and the end of the preceding Maastrichtian Age) is at the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 Ma, ending 61.6 Ma, being followed by the Selandian Age.<ref>[http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale International Commission on Stratigraphy 2017]</ref>

"Many correlation criteria are present at the GSSP of which the most useful are the meteorite impact evidence (iridium anomaly, Ni-rich spinel, etc.) and the mass extinction of plankic micro- and nannofossils."<ref name=Molina>{{ cite journal
|author=Eustoquio Molina
|author2=Laia Alegret
|author3=Ignacio Arenillas
|author4=José A. Arz
|author5=Njoud Gallala
|author6=Jan Hardenbol
|author7=Katharina von Salis
|author8=Etienne Steurbaut
|author9=Noël Vandenberghe
|author10=Dalila Zaghbib-Turki
|title=The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Danian Stage (Paleocene, Paleogene, "Tertiary", Cenozoic) at El Kef, Tunisia - Original definition and revision
|journal=Episodes
|month=December
|year=2006
|volume=29
|issue=4
|pages=263-73
|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Danian.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2015-01-19 }}</ref>

The "GSSP of the K/Pg boundary [is defined] at the base of the boundary clay at the section near El Kef, Tunisia."<ref name=Molina/>

"The section [specifically shown in a closeup on the right] contains marine sediments and sedimentation was as continuous as it could be at a K/Pg boundary. There is a facies change from a grey marl to a black clay (Boundary Clay), at the base of which is a thin rusty layer. This is the fingerprint of continuous sedimentation over the K/Pg boundary interval."<ref name=Molina/>

"Neither magnetostratigraphy nor geochronometry are available at the section near El Kef."<ref name=Molina/>

"The GSSP section near El Kef contains one main feature that allows for a direct correlation of this marine section with continental sections: the Ir anomaly at the base of the Boundary Clay."<ref name=Molina/>

The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Danian Stage is also the base GSSP for the Paleocene, Paleogene, "Tertiary", and Cenozoic at El Kef, Tunisia.

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Each time frame or span of time in the geochronology of the Cenozoic has at least one dating technique.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Genetics/Ammonoids]]
* [[Genetics/Human DNA]]
* [[Genetics/Human teeth]]
* [[Geochronology/Archaeology]]
* [[Geochronology/Cenozoic]]
* [[Geochronology/Dates]]
* [[Geochronology/Dendrochronology]]
* [[Geochronology/Dye 3]]
* [[Geochronology/Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale]]
* [[Geochronology/Ice cores]]
* [[Geochronology/Ice cores/Black ice]]
* [[Geochronology/Ice cores/Brittle ice]]
* [[Geochronology/Ice cores/Clear ice]]
* [[Geochronology/Ice cores/Firns]]
* [[Geochronology/Ice cores/Sea ice]]
* [[Geochronology/Medieval Warm Period]]
* [[Geochronology/Mesozoic]]
* [[Geochronology/Middle Ages]]
* [[Geochronology/Neoglaciations]]
* [[Geochronology/Optically stimulated luminescence]]
* [[Geochronology/Paleontology]]
* [[Geochronology/Paleozoic]]
* [[Geochronology/Palynology]]
* [[Geochronology/Precambrian]]
* [[Geochronology/Radiocarbon dating]]
* [[Geochronology/Stratigraphy]]
* [[Geochronology/Tephra layers]]
* [[Geochronology/Uranium-thorium dating]]
* [[Paleanthropology]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [https://stratigraphy.org/gssps/ GSSPs]
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geochronologic_names List of geochronologic names]
* [http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=displaySearchStrataForm Stratographic units]

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