View source for Plasmas/Plasma objects/Nucleosynthesis

[[Image:Traceimage.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Examples of solar coronal loops are observed by the Transition Region And Coronal Explorer (TRACE) using the 17.1 nm filter. Credit: NASA.]]
'''Nucleosynthesis''' is the process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons (protons and neutrons).

"A fundamental question in nuclear physics is what combinations of neutrons and protons can make up a nucleus. Many hundreds of exotic neutron-rich isotopes have never been observed; the limit of how many neutrons a given number of protons can bind is unknown for all but the lightest elements<sup>1</sup>, owing to the delicate interplay between single particle and collective quantum effects in the nucleus."<ref name=Baumann>{{ cite journal
|author=T. Baumann
|author2=A. M. Amthor
|author3=D. Bazin
|author4=B. A. Brown
|author5=C. M. Folden III
|author6=A. Gade
|author7=T. N. Ginter
|author8=M. Hausmann
|author9=M. Matoš
|author10=D. J. Morrissey
|author11=M. Portillo
|author12=A. Schiller
|author13=B. M. Sherrill
|author14=A. Stolz
|author15=O. B. Tarasov
|author16=M. Thoennessen
|title=Discovery of <sup>40</sup>Mg and <sup>42</sup>Al suggests neutron drip-line slant towards heavier isotopes
|journal=Nature
|month=October 25,
|year=2007
|volume=449
|issue=7165
|pages=1022-4
|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v449/n7165/full/nature06213.html
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1038/nature06213 
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.nscl.msu.edu/~thoennes/personal/papers/nature06213.pdf
|accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref>

"No published theoretical calculation has been able to simultaneously reproduce both the oxygen and fluorine driplines."<ref name=Kohley>{{ cite journal
|author=Z. Kohley
|author2=A. Spyrou
|author3=E. Lunderberg
|author4=P. A. DeYoung
|author5=H. Attanayake
|author6=T. Baumann
|author7=D. Bazin
|author8=B. A. Brown G. Christian
|author9=D. Divaratne
|author10=S. M. Grimes
|author11=A. Haagsma
|author12=J. E. Finck
|author13=N. Frank
|author14=B. Luther
|author15=S. Mosby
|author16=T. Nagi
|author17=G. F. Peaslee
|author18=W. A. Peters
|author19=A. Schiller
|author20=J. K. Smith
|author21=J. Snyder
|author22=M. J. Strongman
|author23=M. Thoennessen
|author24=A. Volya
|title=Exploring the neutron dripline two neutrons at a time: The first observations of the <sup>26</sup>O and <sup>16</sup>Be ground state resonances
|journal=arXiv preprint
|month=August 14,
|year=2012
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1208.2969.pdf
|arxiv=1208.2969
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Astronucleosynthesis==
[[Image:Wide Field Imager view of the star formation region NGC 3582.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This picture of the star formation region NGC 3582 was taken using the Wide Field Imager at ESO's La Silla Observatory in Chile. Credit: ESO, Digitized Sky Survey 2 and Joe DePasquale.]]
The image at right of NGC 3582 reveals giant loops of gas ejected by dying stars that bear a striking resemblance to solar prominences.
{{clear}}

==Radiation==
{{main|Radiation}}
Gold "nuclei (the positively charged part of the atom made of protons and neutrons) [are] sent speeding around [the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC)] at near light-speed until they [crash] into each other. When the ions collide, the enormous energy released is so intense it melts the neutrons and protons inside the gold nuclei into [a] nearly friction-free primordial plasma [that] reaches around 7.2 trillion degrees Fahrenheit (4 trillion degrees Celsius)."<ref name=Bryner>{{ cite book
|author=Jeanna Bryner
|title=Atom Smasher Sets Guinness Record for Hottest Man-Made Temperature
|publisher=Livecience
|location=
|date=June 26, 2012
|url=http://www.livescience.com/21183-rhic-guinness-highest-temperature.html
|accessdate=2013-11-01 }}</ref>

==Theoretical nucleosynthesis==

'''Def.''' any of several processes that lead to the [[wikt:synthesis|synthesis]] of heavier [[wikt:atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] is called '''nucleosynthesis'''.

==Neutrons==
{{main|Charges/Neutrons|Neutrons}}
The '''neutron''' is a subatomic hadron particle which has the symbol {{SubatomicParticle|Neutron}} or {{SubatomicParticle|Neutron0}}, no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton.

:<math>p^+ + e^- \rightarrow n^0 + \nu_e</math>

==Protons==
{{main|Charges/Protons|Protons}}
:<math>e^+ + \nu_e + \bar\nu_\mu\to \mu^+</math>

:<math>e^+ + e^- + \gamma\to \pi^0</math>

:<math>2\gamma\to \pi^0</math>

:<math>\mu^+ + \pi^0\to p^+</math>

==Liquid objects==
{{main|Liquids/Liquid objects|Liquid objects}}
"[W]e did not at all anticipate the nearly perfect liquid behavior."<ref name=Vigdor>{{ cite book
|author=Steven Vigdor
|title=Atom Smasher Sets Guinness Record for Hottest Man-Made Temperature
|publisher=Livecience
|location=
|date=June 26, 2012
|url=http://www.livescience.com/21183-rhic-guinness-highest-temperature.html
|accessdate=2013-11-01 }}</ref>

"Other physicists have now observed quite similar liquid behavior in trapped atom samples at temperatures near absolute zero, ten million trillion times colder than the quark-gluon plasma we create at RHIC".<ref name=Vigdor/>

==Astrochemistry==
{{main|Astrochemistry}}
[[Image:NuclideMap stitched small preview.png|thumb|left|400px|These are the known nuclides in chart form. Credit: Brookhaven National Laboratory.]]
{{legend|#feff41|alpha decay}}
{{legend|#000000|stable nuclide}}
{{legend|#e78cc7|beta<sup>+</sup>/EC decay}}
{{legend|#63c5de|beta<sup>-</sup> decay}}
{{legend|#ff9472|proton decay}}
{{legend|#53b552|spontaneous fission}}
{{legend|#9b7bbc|neutron emission}}
[[Image:NuclideMap small preview.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Here the above chart is cut into three sections. Credit: Brookhaven National Laboratory.]]
A '''table of nuclides''' or '''chart of nuclides''' is a two-dimensional [Cartesian coordinate system] graph in which one axis represents the number of neutrons and the other represents the number of protons in an atomic nucleus. Each point plotted on the graph thus represents the nuclide of a real or hypothetical [[chemical element]]. Hydrogen is at the lower left.
{{clear}}

==R processes==

The more rapid R-process differs from the S-process by its faster rate of neutron capture of more than one neutron before beta-decay takes place.

==S processes==
[[Image:Nucleosynthesis periodic table.svg|thumb|500px|Periodic table showing the cosmogenic origin of each element. Credit: [[commons:user:Cmglee|Cmglee]].]]
[[Image:S-process-elem-Ag-to-Sb.svg|thumb|right|400px|The S-process is indicated acting in the range from Ag to Sb. Credit: Rursus Siderespector.]]
The '''s-process''' or slow-neutron-capture-process is a nucleosynthesis process that occurs at relatively low neutron density and intermediate temperature conditions in stars. Under these conditions heavier nuclei are created by neutron capture, increasing the atomic weight of the nucleus by one. A neutron in the new nucleus decays by beta-minus decay to a proton, creating a nucleus of higher atomic number. The rate of neutron capture by atomic nuclei is slow relative to the rate of radioactive beta-minus decay, hence the name. This process produces stable isotopes by moving along the valley of beta-decay stable isobars in the chart of isotopes. The S-process produces approximately half of the isotopes of the elements heavier than iron, and therefore plays an important role in the galactic chemical evolution.

The elements heavier than iron with origins in ''large stars'' are typically those produced by the s-process, which is characterized by slow neutron diffusion and capture over long periods in such stars.

The S-process is believed to occur mostly in asymptotic giant branch stars. In contrast to the R-process which is believed to occur over time scales of seconds in explosive environments, the S-process is believed to occur over time scales of thousands of years, passing decades between neutron captures. The extent to which the s-process moves up the elements in the chart of isotopes to higher mass numbers is essentially determined by the degree to which the star in question is able to produce neutrons. The quantitative yield is also proportional to the amount of iron in the star's initial abundance distribution. Iron is the "starting material" (or seed) for this neutron capture – beta-minus decay sequence of synthesizing new elements.

The weak component of the S-process, on the other hand, synthesizes S-process isotopes of elements from iron group seed nuclei to <sup>58</sup>Fe on up to Sr and Y, and takes place at the end of helium- and carbon-burning in massive stars. It employs primarily the <sup>22</sup>Ne neutron source. These stars will become supernovae at their demise and spew those s isotopes into interstellar gas.

The S-process is sometimes approximated over a small mass region using the so-called "local approximation", by which the ratio of abundances is inversely proportional to the ratio of neutron-capture cross-sections for nearby isotopes on the s-process path. This approximation is – as the name indicates – only valid locally, meaning for isotopes of nearby mass numbers, but it is invalid at magic numbers where the ledge-precipice structure dominates.
{{clear}}

==Hydrogens==
{{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens|Hydrogens}}
<sup>1</sup>H(p,β<sup>+</sup>ν)<sup>2</sup>H

:2<sup>1</sup>H<sub>1</sub> → <sup>2</sup>D<sub>1</sub> + e<sup>+</sup> + ν<sub>e</sub> + γ (0.42 MeV)

At 10-million-kelvin, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton-proton chain reaction:<ref name=Wallerstein>{{ cite journal
| author=G. Wallerstein
|author2=I. Iben Jr.
|author3=P.  Parker
|author4=A. M. Boesgaard
|author5=G. M. Hale
|author6=A. E. Champagne
|author7=C. A. Barnes
|author8=F.  KM-dppeler
|author9=V. V. Smith
|author10=R. D. Hoffman
|author11=F. X. Timmes
|author12=C. Sneden
|author13=R. N. Boyd
|author14=B. S. Meyer
|author15=D. L. Lambert
| title=Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress
| journal=Reviews of Modern Physics
| year=1999
| volume=69
| issue=4
| pages=995–1084
| url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/10255/1/WALrmp97.pdf
| accessdate=2006-08-04
| doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995
| bibcode=1997RvMP...69..995W }}</ref>
:4<sup>1</sup>H → 2<sup>2</sup>H + 2e<sup>+</sup> + 2ν<sub>e</sub> (4.0 MeV + 1.0 MeV)
:2<sup>1</sup>H + 2<sup>2</sup>H → 2<sup>3</sup>He + 2γ (5.5 MeV)
:2<sup>3</sup>He → <sup>4</sup>He + 2<sup>1</sup>H (12.9 MeV)

These reactions result in the overall reaction:

:4<sup>1</sup>H → <sup>4</sup>He + 2e<sup>+</sup> + 2γ + 2ν<sub>e</sub> (26.7 MeV)

where e<sup>+</sup> is a positron, γ is a gamma ray photon, ν<sub>e</sub> is a neutrino, and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium, respectively. The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts, which is actually only a tiny amount of energy.

"The light elements deuterium, lithium, beryllium, and boron pose a special problem for any theory of the origin of the elements which proposes that all the elements are built up from hydrogen in the stars. ... The difficulty arises because the lifetimes of these elements against proton capture, at the temperatures and pressures at which most stellar matter exists, are short compared to the stable lifetimes of stars. These elements then cannot be produced in stellar interiors unless they are transported rapidly to the surface, and if they are produced at the surface, non-equilibrium processes must be involved. Further, they can exist in significant quantities at the surface only in the absence of rapid mixing to the interior."<ref name=Bonsack>{{ cite journal
|author=Walter K. Bonsack
|title=The Abundance of Lithium and Convective Mixing in Stars of Type K
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=November
|year=1959
|volume=130
|issue=11
|pages=843-71
|url=
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1959ApJ...130..843B
|doi=10.1086/146777
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-03-24 }}</ref>

==Heliums==
{{main|Chemicals/Heliums|Heliums}}
The '''alpha process''', also known as the '''alpha ladder''' is one of two classes of [nuclear] reactions [for converting] helium into heavier elements, the other being the triple-alpha process.<ref name=Narlikar>{{ cite book
|author=Jayant V. Narlikar
|title=From Black Clouds to Black Holes
|date=1995
|publisher=World Scientific
|isbn=9810220332
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0_gmjz-L70EC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&source=bl&ots=i3uvgiw3jj&sig=ACoA3xsZJKvj4z9KAdCyu00Zt3A&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GsncUM2ANMrIiwK-qoE4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&f=false}}</ref>

Possible reactions:

:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{8}^{16}O} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;7.16&nbsp;MeV

:<math>\mathrm{_8^{16}O} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{10}^{20}Ne} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;4.73&nbsp;MeV

:<math>\mathrm{_{10}^{20}Ne} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{12}^{24}Mg} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;9.31&nbsp;MeV

:<math>\mathrm{_{12}^{24}Mg} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{14}^{28}Si} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;9.98&nbsp;MeV

:<math>\mathrm{_{14}^{28}Si} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{16}^{32}S} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;6.95&nbsp;MeV

:<math>\mathrm{_{16}^{32}S} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{18}^{36}Ar} + \gamma</math>

:<math>\mathrm{_{18}^{36}Ar} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{20}^{40}Ca} + \gamma</math>

:<math>\mathrm{_{20}^{40}Ca} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{22}^{44}Ti} + \gamma</math>

:<math>\mathrm{_{22}^{44}Ti} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{24}^{48}Cr} + \gamma</math>

:<math>\mathrm{_{24}^{48}Cr} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{26}^{52}Fe} + \gamma</math>

:<math>\mathrm{_{26}^{52}Fe} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{28}^{56}Ni} + \gamma</math>

:<math>\mathrm{_{28}^{56}Ni} + \mathrm{_2^4He} + \gamma  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{30}^{60}Zn}</math>

'''Alpha process elements''' (or '''alpha elements''') are so-called since their most abundant isotopes are integer multiples of the alpha particle). Alpha elements are atomic number Z ≤ 22: (C, N), O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, Ar, Ca, Ti. They may be synthesized by alpha-capture. Silicon and calcium are purely alpha process elements. Magnesium can be burned by proton capture reactions. Oxygen enhancement is well correlated with an enhancement of other alpha process elements. C and N are considered alpha process elements, when they are synthesized in nuclear alpha-capture reactions.

The abundance of alpha elements in stars is usually expressed in a logarithmic manner:
:<math> [\alpha/Fe] = \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\alpha}}{N_{Fe}}\right)_{Star}} - \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\alpha}}{N_{Fe}}\right)_{Sun}} </math>,
Here <math>N_{\alpha}</math> and <math>N_{Fe}</math> are the number of alpha element atoms and Fe atoms per unit volume.

:<math>\mathrm{_1^1H} + \mathrm{_1^1H}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{2}^{2}He}</math>

==Lithiums==
{{main|Chemicals/Lithiums|Lithiums}}
:<math>\mathrm{_1^{3}T} + \mathrm{_2^{4}He} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{3}^{7}Li} + \gamma </math>&nbsp; + ?&nbsp;MeV

:<math>\mathrm{_4^{7}Be} + n^0 \rightarrow \mathrm{_{3}^{7}Li} + p^+ </math>

:<math>\mathrm{_4^{7}Be} + e^- \rightarrow \mathrm{_{3}^{7}Li} + \nu_e </math>

==Berylliums==
{{main|Chemicals/Berylliums|Berylliums}}
:<math>\mathrm{_2^4He} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{4}^{8}Be}</math>&nbsp;(−93.7 keV)

A beam of 120 MeV/u <sup>22</sup>Ne is "fragmented on a thick Be production target" to produce a secondary beam of 53 MeV/u <sup>17</sup>B against a reaction target of 470 mg/cm<sup>2</sup> <sup>9</sup>Be to produce unbound <sup>16</sup>Be nuclei.<ref name=Kohley/>

:<math>\mathrm{_2^3He} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{4}^{7}Be}</math>&nbsp; + ?&nbsp;MeV

==Carbons==
{{main|Chemicals/Carbons|Carbons}}
[[Image:Triple-Alpha Process.svg|250px|right|thumb|This diagram presents an overview of the triple-alpha process. Credit: [[w:User:Borb|Borb]].]]
The '''triple alpha process''' is a set of [nuclear] reactions by which three ... [alpha particles] are transformed into carbon.<ref name=Appenzeller>{{ cite book
|editor=Appenzeller
|editor2=Harwit
|editor3=Kippenhahn
|editor4=Strittmatter
|editor5=Trimble
| title= Astrophysics Library
|publisher=Springer, New York
|date=1998 }}</ref><ref name=" Ostlie" >{{ cite book
|author= Ostlie D.A.
|author2=Carroll B.W.
|title=An Introduction to Modern Stellar Astrophysics
|publisher= Addison Wesley
|location=San Francisco, California USA
|date=2007
|isbn=0-8053-0348-0 }}</ref>

Some of these reactions are

:<math>\mathrm{_2^4He} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{4}^{8}Be}</math>&nbsp;(−93.7 keV) and

:<math>\mathrm{_4^8Be} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{6}^{12}C}</math>&nbsp;(+7.367 MeV).

The net energy release of the process is 1.166 pJ.

An additional alpha process reaction that may occur is

:<math>\mathrm{_{6}^{12}C} + \mathrm{_2^4He} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{8}^{16}O} + \gamma</math>&nbsp;(+7.162 MeV).

<sup>4</sup>He(αα,γ)<sup>12</sup>C or

:<math>\mathrm{_2^4He} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{4}^{8}Be}</math>&nbsp;(−93.7 keV) and

:<math>\mathrm{_4^8Be} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{6}^{12}C}</math>&nbsp;(+7.367 MeV).

<sup>14</sup>N(n,p)<sup>14</sup>C
{{clear}}

==Nitrogens==
{{main|Chemicals/Nitrogens|Nitrogens}}
The '''carbon-burning process''' is a set of nuclear reactions that may require high temperatures (> 5&times;10<sup>8</sup> K or 50 keV) and densities (> 3&times;10<sup>9</sup> kg/m<sup>3</sup>).<ref name=Ryan>{{ cite book
| author=Sean G. Ryan, Andrew J. Norton
| title=Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
| date=2010
| page=135
| isbn=978-0-521-13320-3
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=PE4yGiU-JyEC#v=onepage&f=false }}</ref>

===CNO-I===
[[Image:CNO Cycle.svg|250px|right|thumbnail|This shows an overview of the CNO-I Cycle. Credit: [[commons:User:Borb|Borb]].]]
The principal reactions are:<ref name="Camiel1992">{{ cite book
|author=W. H. Camiel, C. Doom de Loore
|title=Structure and evolution of single and binary stars, In: ''Volume 179 of Astrophysics and space science library''
|editor=Camiel W. H. de Loore
|date=1992
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=978-0-7923-1768-5
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=LJgNIi0vkeYC#v=snippet&f=false|pages=95–97}}</ref>"

{{Nuclide2|carbon|12}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|13}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;1.95&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|13}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|carbon|13}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;e<sup>+</sup>&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;1.20&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 9.965 minutes<ref name="half-life-cn">[http://books.google.com/books?id=gCr9WVH0utwC&pg=PA233 Principles and Perspectives in Cosmochemistry], Springer, 2010, {{ISBN|9783642103681}}, page 233</ref>), or <sup>12</sup>C(p,γ)<sup>13</sup>N.

{{Nuclide2|carbon|13}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|14}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;7.54&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|14}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;7.35&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|15}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;1.73&bsp;MeV (half-life of 122.24 seconds<ref name="half-life-cn"/>)

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|carbon|12}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|helium|4}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;4.96&nbsp;MeV:<ref name="Krane">
{{Cite book
 |last=Krane |first=K. S.
 |date=1988
 |title=Introductory Nuclear Physics
 |page=537
 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons
 |isbn=0-471-80553-X
}}</ref>

===CNO-II===

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;12.13&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;0.60&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;2.76&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 64.49 seconds)

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|14}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|helium|4}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;1.19&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|14}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;7.35&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|15}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;2.75&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 122.24 seconds)

===CNO-III===

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;5.61&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|18}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;1.656&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 109.771 minutes)

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|helium|4}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;3.98&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;12.13&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;0.60&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;2.76&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 64.49 seconds)

=== CNO-IV ===
[[Image:NuclearReaction.svg|thumb|right|250px|A proton reacts with a nucleus causing release of an alpha particle. Credit: [[commons:User:Michalsmid|Michalsmid]].]]
These reactions may occur in massive stars.
{{Nuclide2|fluorine|19}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|helium|4}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;8.114&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;0.60&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;2.76&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 64.49 seconds)

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;5.61&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|18}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;1.656&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 109.771 minutes)

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|19}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;7.994&nbsp;MeV

These are the hot CNO cycles reactions with conditions of higher temperature as have been found in novae and X-ray bursts.

When the rate of proton captures exceeds the rate of beta-decay, the burning conforms to the proton drip line. A radioactive species captures a proton before it can beta decay.

=== HCNO-I ===

{{Nuclide2|carbon|12}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|13}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;1.95&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|13}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|14}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;4.63&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|14}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|14}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;5.14&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 70.641 seconds)

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|14}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;7.35&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|15}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;2.75&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 122.24 seconds)

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|carbon|12}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|helium|4}}&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;4.96&nbsp;MeV

=== HCNO-II ===

{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;12.13&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;0.60&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|neon|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;3.92&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|neon|18}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;4.44&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 1.672 seconds)

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|helium|4}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;2.88&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|15}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|nitrogen|15}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;2.75&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 122.24 seconds)

=== HCNO-III ===

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|neon|19}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;6.41&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|neon|19}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|19}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;3.32&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 17.22 seconds)

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|19}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|helium|4}}&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;8.11&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|oxygen|16}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;0.60&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|fluorine|17}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|neon|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;3.92&nbsp;MeV

{{Nuclide2|neon|18}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide2|fluorine|18}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron Neutrino}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;4.44&nbsp;MeV (half-life of 1.672 seconds)

==Oxygens==
{{main|Chemicals/Oxygens|Oxygens}}
:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_6^{12}C} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{8}^{16}O} + 2\mathrm{_2^{4}He} </math>&nbsp; - 0.113&nbsp;MeV

The main neutron source reactions are:

: <sup>13</sup>C + <sup>4</sup>He → <sup>16</sup>O + n

<sup>12</sup>C(α,γ)<sup>16</sup>O or

:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{8}^{16}O} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;7.16&nbsp;MeV.

:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_6^{12}C} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{8}^{16}O} + 2\mathrm{_2^{4}He} </math>&nbsp; - 0.113&nbsp;MeV

<sup>13</sup>C(α,n)<sup>16</sup>O

<sup>14</sup>N(p,γ)<sup>15</sup>O

"A primary beam of 140 MeV/u <sup>48</sup>Ca<sup>20+</sup> [ions] bombarded a 1316 mg/cm<sup>2</sup> <sup>9</sup>Be production target. ... The [secondary] <sup>27</sup>F beam then impinged on a 705 mg/cm<sup>2</sup> Be target producing the isotope of interest, <sup>26</sup>O, through one-proton removal reactions. ... The <sup>24</sup>O fragments were identified by time-of-flight and energy loss in the charged particle detectors."<ref name=Lunderberg>{{ cite journal
|author=E. Lunderberg
|author2=P.A. DeYoung
|author3=Z. Kohley
|author4=H. Attanayake
|author5=T. Baumann
|author6=D. Bazin
|author7=G. Christian
|author8=D. Divaratne
|author9=S.M. Grimes
|author10=A. Haagsma
|author11=J.E. Finck
|author12=N. Frank
|author13=B. Luther
|author14=S. Mosby
|author15=T. Nagy
|author16=G.F. Peaslee
|author17=A. Schiller
|author18=J. Snyder
|author19=A. Spyrou
|author20=M.J. Strongman
|author21=M. Thoennessen
|title=Evidence for the ground-state resonance of <sup>26</sup>O
|journal=Physical Review Letters
|month=April 6,
|year=2012
|volume=108
|issue=14
|pages=5
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1202.3973.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.142503
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref>

"[I]n the dripline nucleus <sup>24</sup>O a large energy difference was measured between the ''ν''1''s''<sub>1/2</sub> and ''ν''0''d''<sub>3/2</sub> orbitals indicating a new magic number at ''N'' = 16 [4,5]."<ref name=Kohley/>

A beam of 140 MeV/u <sup>48</sup>Ca is "fragmented on a thick Be production target" to produce a secondary beam of 82 MeV/u <sup>27</sup>F against a reaction target of 705 mg/cm<sup>2</sup> <sup>9</sup>Be to produce unbound <sup>26</sup>O nuclei.<ref name=Kohley/>

==Fluorines==
{{main|Chemicals/Fluorines|Fluorines}}
<sup>16</sup>O(p,γ)<sup>17</sup>F

<sup>14</sup>N(α,γ)<sup>18</sup>F

"Woosley & Haxton (1988) proposed first that F is produced by neutrino spallation on <sup>20</sup>Ne; <sup>20</sup>Ne(ν,ν′p)<sup>19</sup>F."<ref name=Sonnentrucker>{{ cite journal
|author=P. Sonnentrucker
|author2=D. A. Neufeld
|author3=T. G. Phillips
|author4=M. Gerin
|author5=D. C. Lis
|author6=M. De Luca
|author7=J. R. Goicoechea
|author8=J. H. Black
|author9=T. A. Bell
|author10=F. Boulanger
|author11=J. Cernicharo
|author12=A. Coutens
|author13=E. Dartois
|author14=M . Kaźmierczak
|author15=P. Encrenaz
|author16=E. Falgarone
|author17=T. R. Geballe
|author18=T. Giesen
|author19=B. Godard
|author20=P. F. Goldsmith
|author21=C. Gry
|author22=H. Gupta
|author23=P. Hennebelle
|author24=E. Herbst
|author25=P. Hily-Blant
|author26=C. Joblin
|author27=R. Kołos
|author28=J. Krełowski
|author29=J. Martín-Pintado
|author30=K. M. Menten
|author31=R. Monje
|author32=B. Mookerjea
|author33=J. Pearson
|author34=M. Perault
|author35=C. M. Persson
|author36=R. Plume
|author37=M. Salez
|author38=S. Schlemmer
|author39=M. Schmidt
|author40=J. Stutzki
|author41=D.Teyssier
|author42=C. Vastel
|author43=S. Yu
|author44=E. Caux
|author45=R. Güsten
|author46=W. A. Hatch
|author47=T. Klein
|author48=I. Mehdi
|author49=P. Morris
|author50=J. S. Ward
|title=Detection of hydrogen fluoride absorption in diffuse molecular clouds with ''Herschel''/HIFI: a ubiquitous tracer of molecular gas
|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics
|month=October 1,
|year=2010
|volume=521
|issue=
|pages=5
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015082
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-01-17 }}</ref>

Alternative reactions include
# <sup>14</sup>N(n,p)<sup>14</sup>C(α,γ)<sup>18</sup>O(p,α)<sup>15</sup>N(α,γ)<sup>19</sup>F and
# <sup>14</sup>N(α,γ)<sup>18</sup>F(β<sup>+</sup>)<sup>18</sup>O(p,α)<sup>15</sup>N(α,γ)<sup>19</sup>F,
"where the neutrons are provided by <sup>13</sup>C(α,n)<sup>16</sup>O and the protons mainly by <sup>14</sup>N(n,p)<sup>14</sup>C (see Jorissen et al. 1992)."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/>

The isotope <sup>31</sup>F has been observed and [is] producible by the same particle accelerator induced fragmentation as has produced <sup>40</sup>Mg.<ref name=Baumann/>

==Neons==
{{main|Chemicals/Neons|Neons}}
:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_6^{12}C} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{10}^{20}Ne} + \mathrm{_2^{4}He} </math>&nbsp; + 4.617&nbsp;MeV

<sup>16</sup>O(α,γ)<sup>20</sup>Ne or

:<math>\mathrm{_8^{16}O} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{10}^{20}Ne} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;4.73&nbsp;MeV

<sup>19</sup>F(p,γ )<sup>20</sup>Ne

<sup>19</sup>F(α,p)<sup>22</sup>Ne

<sup>34</sup>Ne has been observed and [is] producible by the same particle accelerator induced fragmentation as has produced <sup>40</sup>Mg.<ref name=Baumann/>

==Sodiums==
{{main|Chemicals/Sodiums|Sodiums}}
:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_6^{12}C} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{11}^{23}Na} + \mathrm{_1^{1}H} </math>&nbsp; + 2.241&nbsp;MeV

<sup>22</sup>Ne(n,γ )<sup>23</sup>Ne(''β''<sup>−</sup>)<sup>23</sup>Na<ref name=Sonnentrucker/>

<sup>22</sup>Ne(p,γ )<sup>23</sup>Na<ref name=Sonnentrucker/>

<sup>37</sup>Na has been observed and [is] producible by the same particle accelerator induced fragmentation as has produced <sup>40</sup>Mg.<ref name=Baumann/>

==Magnesiums==
{{main|Chemicals/Magnesiums|Magnesiums}}
:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_6^{12}C} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{12}^{23}Mg} + \mathrm{n} </math>&nbsp; - 2.599&nbsp;MeV

:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_6^{12}C} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{12}^{24}Mg} + \gamma </math>&nbsp; + 13.933&nbsp;MeV

The main neutron source reactions are:

: <sup>22</sup>Ne + <sup>4</sup>He → <sup>25</sup>Mg + n

:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_6^{12}C} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{12}^{23}Mg} + \mathrm{n} </math>&nbsp; - 2.599&nbsp;MeV

:<math>\mathrm{_6^{12}C} + \mathrm{_6^{12}C} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{12}^{24}Mg} + \gamma </math>&nbsp; + 13.933&nbsp;MeV

<sup>20</sup>Ne(α,γ)<sup>24</sup>Mg or

:<math>\mathrm{_{10}^{20}Ne} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{12}^{24}Mg} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;9.31&nbsp;MeV

<sup>12</sup>C(<sup>12</sup>C,γ)<sup>24</sup>Mg

<sup>22</sup>Ne(α,n)<sup>25</sup>Mg<ref name=Sonnentrucker/>

To produce isotopes such as <sup>40</sup>Mg, one process is "[t]he fragmentation of stable nuclei [such as] <sup>nat</sup>W [using] [a] primary beam of <sup>48</sup>Ca with an energy per nucleon of 141 MeV [and an] average incident beam intensity [of] 5.0 x 10<sup>11</sup> particles per second."<ref name=Baumann/>

==Aluminums==
{{main|Chemicals/Aluminums|Aluminums}}
<sup>42</sup>Al and likely <sup>43</sup>Al are producible by the same particle accelerator induced fragmentation as has produced <sup>40</sup>Mg.<ref name=Baumann/>

"The dominant reactions for making <sup>26</sup>Al by proton and α bombardment of refractory rocks in impulsive flares are <sup>27</sup>Al(p, pn)<sup>26</sup>Al (β=0.92), <sup>26</sup>Mg(p, n)<sup>26</sup>Al (β=1.0), <sup>24</sup>Mg(α, pn)<sup>26</sup>Al (β=2.5 and y<sub>CR</sub> = 0.1), <sup>28</sup>Si(p, 2pn)<sup>26</sup>Al (β=0.10), and <sup>28</sup>Si(α, αpn)<sup>26</sup>Al (β=0.41)."<ref name=Lee>{{ cite journal
|author=Typhoon Lee
|author2=Frank H. Shu
|author3=Hsien Shang
|author4=Alfred E. Glassgold
|author5=K. E. Rehm
|title=Protostellar cosmic rays and extinct radioactivities in meteorites
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=October 20,
|year=1998
|volume=506
|issue=2
|pages=898-912
|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/506/2/898
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1086/306284
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref>

==Silicons==
{{main|Chemicals/Silicons|Silicons}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{12}^{24}Mg} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{14}^{28}Si} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;9.98&nbsp;MeV

<sup>16</sup>O(<sup>12</sup>C,γ)<sup>30</sup>Si

<sup>44</sup>Si is producible by the same particle accelerator induced fragmentation as has produced <sup>40</sup>Mg.<ref name=Baumann/>

==Sulfurs==
{{main|Chemicals/Sulfurs|Sulfurs}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{14}^{28}Si} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{16}^{32}S} + \gamma + Q</math>, Q&nbsp;=&nbsp;6.95&nbsp;MeV

<sup>16</sup>O(<sup>16</sup>O,γ)<sup>32</sup>S

==Argons==
{{main|Chemicals/Argons|Argons}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{16}^{32}S} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{18}^{36}Ar} + \gamma</math>

==Calciums==
{{main|Chemicals/Calciums|Calciums}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{18}^{36}Ar} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{20}^{40}Ca} + \gamma</math>

==Titaniums==
{{main|Chemicals/Titaniums|Titaniums}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{20}^{40}Ca} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{22}^{44}Ti} + \gamma</math>

==Chromiums==
{{main|Chemicals/Chromiums|Chromiums}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{22}^{44}Ti} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{24}^{48}Cr} + \gamma</math>

==Irons==
{{main|Chemicals/Irons|Irons}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{24}^{48}Cr} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{26}^{52}Fe} + \gamma</math>

==Heavy isotopes==

A published table apportions the heavy isotopes between S-process and R-process.<ref name=Burbidge>{{ cite journal
| title= Synthesis of the Elements in Stars 
| author= E. M. Burbidge
|author2=G. R. Burbidge
|author3=W. A. Fowler
|author4=F. Hoyle
| journal= Reviews of Modern Physics 
| volume= 29 
| issue= 4
| pages= 547–650
| year= 1957 
| doi= 10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547
| bibcode=1957RvMP...29..547B}}</ref>

The details of asymptotic giant branch (AGB)-star nucleosynthesis became a standard model based on the stellar structure models. A series of measurements of neutron-capture cross sections<ref name=Macklin>{{ cite journal 
| author= R. L. Macklin, J. H. Gibbons 
| title= Neutron Capture Data at Stellar Temperatures 
| journal= Reviews of Modern Physics 
| volume= 37 
| issue= 1
| year= 1965 
| pages= 166–176
| doi= 10.1103/RevModPhys.37.166
| bibcode=1965RvMP...37..166M}}</ref><ref name=Kaeppele>{{ cite journal 
| author= F. Kaeppeler
|author2=H. Beer
|author3=K. Wisshak
|author4=D. D. Clayton
|author5=R. L. Macklin
|author6=R. A. Ward
| title = S process studies in the light of new experimental cross sections 
| journal=The Astrophysical Journal 
| volume= 257 
| year= 1982 
| pages= 821–846 
| doi= 10.1086/160033
| bibcode=1982ApJ...257..821K }}</ref> placed the S-process on the firm quantitative basis.

==Cobalts==
{{main|Chemicals/Cobalts|Cobalts}}
{{clear}}

==Nickels==
{{main|Chemicals/Nickels|Nickels}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{26}^{52}Fe} + \mathrm{_2^4He}  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{28}^{56}Ni} + \gamma</math>

==Zincs==
{{main|Chemicals/Zincs|Zincs}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{28}^{56}Ni} + \mathrm{_2^4He} + \gamma  \rightarrow \mathrm{_{30}^{60}Zn}</math>

==Zirconiums==
{{main|Chemicals/Zirconiums|Zirconiums}}
One distinguishes the main and the weak s-process component. The main component produces heavy elements beyond Sr and Y, and up to Pb in the lowest metallicity stars. The production sites of the main component are low-mass Asymptotic Giant Branch stars.<ref name=Boothroyd>{{cite journal 
| author= A. I. Boothroyd 
| title = Heavy elements in stars
| journal= Science 
| volume= 314 
| issue= 5806
| year= 2006 
| pages= 1690–1691 
| doi= 10.1126/science.1136842 
| pmid = 17170281}}</ref> The main component relies on the <sup>13</sup>C neutron source above<ref name=Busso> M. Busso, R. Gallino and G. J. Wasserburg, Nucleosynthesis in AGB stars, ''Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys.'', '''37''', 239–309 (1999)</ref>.

==Technetiums==
{{main|Chemicals/Technetiums|Technetiums}}
The S-process occurs arguably in red giant stars. In a particularly illustrative case, the element technetium, whose longest half-life is 4.2 million years, had been discovered in S-, M-, and N-type stars in 1952.<ref name=CRC>{{ cite book
| author= C. R. Hammond
|title = The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition
| publisher =CRC press
|isbn = 0-8493-0485-7
| year= 2004 }}</ref><ref name=Moore>{{ cite journal
|doi = 10.1126/science.114.2951.59
|pmid = 17782983
|year = 1951
|author = CE Moore
|title = Technetium in the Sun
|volume = 114
|issue = 2951
|pages = 59–61
|journal = Science
|bibcode = 1951Sci...114...59M }}</ref> Since these stars were thought to be billions of years old, the presence of technetium in their outer atmospheres was taken as evidence of its recent creation there, probably unconnected with the nuclear fusion in the deep interior of the star that provides its power.

==Bariums==
{{main|Chemicals/Bariums|Bariums}}
"A calculable model for creating the heavy isotopes from iron seed nuclei in a time-dependent manner"<ref name=Clayton>{{ cite journal 
| author= D. D. Clayton
|author2=W. A. Fowler
|author3=T. E. Hull
|author4=B. A. Zimmerman
| title = Neutron capture chains in heavy element synthesis
| journal= Annals of Physics
| volume= 12
| issue= 3
| year= 1961 
| pages= 331–408 
| doi= 10.1016/0003-4916(61)90067-7|bibcode = 1961AnPhy..12..331C }}</ref> showed that
# the large overabundances of barium observed by astronomers in certain red-giant stars could be created from iron seed nuclei if the total fluence (number of neutrons per unit area) of neutrons was appropriate,
# no one single value for the fluence could account for the observed S-process abundances, but that a wide range of fluences is required. The numbers of iron seed nuclei that were exposed to a given fluence must decrease as the fluence becomes stronger,
# the curve of the product of neutron-capture cross section times abundance is not a smoothly falling curve, but rather has a ''ledge-precipice structure''.

==Leads==
{{main|Chemicals/Leads|Leads}}
"For [asymptotic giant branch] AGB stars that formed early in the history of the Galaxy, and that therefore have very low abundances of elements heavier than helium ('metals'), models<sup>1</sup> predict that the s-process will accumulate synthesized material with atomic weights in the Pb–Bi region. Such stars will therefore have large overabundances of lead relative to other heavy elements."<ref name=Eck>{{ cite journal
|author=S. Van Eck
|author2=S. Goriely
|author3=A. Jorissen
|author4=B. Plez
|title=Discovery of three lead-rich stars
|journal=Nature
|month=23 August
|year=2001
|volume=412
|issue=
|pages=793–795
|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/35090514
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1038/35090514
|pmid=
|accessdate=2017-12-14 }}</ref>

Large "amounts of lead [occur] in three metal-poor stars (HD187861, HD196944 and HD224959). [These] stars are more enriched in lead than in any other element heavier than iron."<ref name=Eck/>

:{{chem|204|Tl}} ⟶ {{chem|204|Pb}} + β<sup>-</sup>, t<sub>1/2</sub> = 3.78 y.

:{{chem|206|Tl}} ⟶ {{chem|206|Pb}} + β<sup>-</sup>, t<sub>1/2</sub> = 4.200(17) min.

:{{chem|207|Tl}} ⟶ {{chem|207|Pb}} + β<sup>-</sup>, t<sub>1/2</sub> = 4.77(2) min.

:{{chem|208|Tl}} ⟶ {{chem|208|Pb}} + β<sup>-</sup>, t<sub>1/2</sub> = 3.053(4) min.

:{{chem|209|Tl}} ⟶ {{chem|209|Pb}} + β<sup>-</sup>, t<sub>1/2</sub> = 2.161(7) min.

:{{chem|210|Tl}} ⟶ {{chem|210|Pb}} + β<sup>-</sup>, t<sub>1/2</sub> = 1.30(3) min (99.991%).

:{{chem|210|Tl}} ⟶ {{chem|209|Pb}} + β<sup>-</sup> + n, t<sub>1/2</sub> = 1.30(3) min (.009%).

==Bismuths==
{{main|Chemicals/Bismuths|Bismuths}}
Because of the relatively low neutron fluxes expected to occur during the S-process (on the order of 10<sup>5</sup> to 10<sup>11</sup> neutrons per cm<sup>2</sup> per second), this process does not have the ability to produce any of the heavy radioactive isotopes such as thorium or uranium. The cycle that terminates the S-process is:

: <sup>209</sup>Bi + n → <sup>210</sup>Bi + γ

:<math>\mathrm{_{83}^{210}Bi} \to \mathrm{_{84}^{210}Po} + e^- + \bar\nu_e </math>

: <sup></sup>Po → <sup>206</sup>Pb + <sup>4</sup>He

<sup>206</sup>Pb then captures three neutrons, producing <sup>209</sup>Pb, which decays to <sup>209</sup>Bi by β<sup>-</sup> decay, restarting the cycle:

: <sup>206</sup>Pb + 3n → <sup>209</sup>Pb

: <math> \mathrm{_{82}^{209}Pb} \to \mathrm{_{83}^{209}Bi} + e^- + \bar\nu_e </math>

The net result of this cycle therefore is that 4 neutrons are converted into one alpha particle, two electrons, two anti-electron neutrinos and gamma radiation:

:<math>4n \to \mathrm{_2^{4}He} + 2e^- + 2\bar\nu_e + \gamma</math>

The process thus terminates in bismuth, the heaviest "stable" element. (Bismuth is actually slightly radioactive, but with a half-life so long—a billion times the present age of the universe—that it is effectively stable over the lifetime of any existing star.)

==Poloniums==
{{main|Chemicals/Poloniums|Poloniums}}
:<math>\mathrm{_{83}^{210}Bi} \to \mathrm{_{84}^{210}Po} + e^- + \bar\nu_e </math>

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Many superheavy transuranium elements can be made using muons.
# The Sun can nucleosynthesize lead.
A control group for nucleosynthesis may be a particular particle accelerator experiment that rigorously reproduces the same nuclei.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Stellar surface fusion]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&go=&qs=n&sk=&sc=8-15&qb=1&FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search]
* [http://books.google.com/ Google Books]
* [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search]
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR]
* [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals]
* [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink]
* [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

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